Conceptual Review on the Role of Self Efficacy in influencing Work Life Balance of Telecommuters

Background: Work-from-home (WFH) has become a more common alternative work arrangement to reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection amidst pandemic. Although WFH was a fantasy for many employees prior to the pandemic and offered some advantages, it has proven to be a difficult work arrangement for most telecommuters during this pandemic situation. Objective: Considering the challenges experienced by telecommuters and to improve their well-being, this article reviews some of the challenges experienced by telecommuters in a pandemic situation. The impact of personal resources such as self-efficacy and flow on Work Life Balance (WLB) were also reviewed. Besides that, influential WLB theories were also reviewed. Design: Relevant work life balance and well-being articles published before and after the pandemic between 1990 to 2021 were identified for review using appropriate keywords. Results: WFH has many benefits, but when implemented in a forced manner in a pandemic situation, employees experienced blurred boundaries, leading to poor WLB. Resources such as self-efficacy and flow can help telecommuters deal with this unprecedented crisis in a more regulated, calm and positive manner. Review of theories and literatures contributed to the development of a Crisis Induced Resources and Balance/Conflict Framework. Conclusions: Pandemic situation has worsened work life balance of telecommuters who struggle in creating and maintaining the boundary between work and home. However, telecommuters can learn to regulate themselves more effectively and manage their boundary with others. Government and companies can communicate better WFH guidelines, policies and also show support to their workers during this crisis.


Introduction
Governments and corporations in most countries have encouraged (and in some cases mandated) individuals to work from home to minimise the spread of the COVID-19 virus and flatten the curve.
Hence, Work-From Home (WFH) has become an increasingly pervasive alternative work arrangement to minimise the risk of COVID-19 infection amidst pandemic. According to Ramachandran (2020), working from home has many benefits. Flexibility, increased productivity, no commute, and more quality time with loved ones are just a few of the advantages of working from home. People who work from home consistently report higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation (Binder & Coad, 2016;Felstead & Henseke, 2017;Wheatley, 2017). According to a longitudinal nationally representative sample of 30,000 families in the United Kingdom (Reushke,2019), working from home is also positively linked to leisure time satisfaction, meaning that individuals who work from home may dedicate more time to leisure.
Although WFH has many benefits and was an idealised scenario for many employees before the pandemic, it proves to be a difficult work arrangement for most telecommuters during the pandemic because many organisations and individuals were suffering from negative emotions such as Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt (FUD). When telecommuters WFH, two domains occupy the same physical space leading to a blurred line between work and nonwork. Thus, telecommuters are more prone to experience poor work life balance (WLB).
Even before the pandemic, achieving work-life balance has grown increasingly complex due to digital integration and remote working scenarios, resulting in an "always on" culture that blurs the line between work and personal life. This phenomenon has inspired several researchers to conduct work-life balance studies (Mensah & Adjei 2020;Nwagbara 2020;Pattusamy & Jacob 2017;Ramachandran, 2020;Wolor, Kurnianti, Zahra & Martono, 2020). This digital integration also has contributed to the development of a more inclusive model of WLB. According to Ramachandran (2020), work-life balance was defined as attaining equilibrium between personal and professional responsibilities. Work-life balance is sometimes confused with Work-Life Conflict (WLC). However, WLC is the polar opposite of work-life balance, as it reduces employee well-being and increases psychological stress (Fotiadis, Abdulrahman, & Spyridou, 2019). The current WLB model, however, is more inclusive and balances work and nonwork interests. Self-management, time management, stress management, change management, technology management, and leisure management are all part of it. The dynamics of work-life balance have changed due to changes in social requirements, available technologies, and personal expectations (Ramachandran, 2020).
However, concerns on work life balance are not new and can be dated back to the 1930s. According to Wolor et al (2020), work life balance programmes were established in 1930, in which firm policies and regulations allow employees to work effectively and efficiently while also providing flexible time to cope with personal difficulties. However, the term "work-life balance" was only officially coined by the Women's Liberation Movement in the United Kingdom in the 1980s. Women's maternity leave and flexible schedules were promoted in this movement (Raja & Stein, 2014). Concerns on WLB has been further exacerbated during the pandemic situation since most workers are forced to WFH.
WFH is currently accepted as a viable approach for reducing the risk of COVID-19 infection. However, WFH is not a new concept, and it has been brought to the attention of numerous schools of thought for some years. Nilles first introduced the WFH notion in 1973, calling it "telecommuting" or "telework" (Messenger & Gschwind, 2016). Over the last four decades, WFH has been referred to by various concepts, including remote work, flexible workplace, telework, telecommuting, and eworking. These terms refer to employees' ability to work in flexible workplaces, particularly at home, by utilising technology to complete work tasks (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007;Grant, Wallace, Spurgeon, Tramontano, & Charalampous 2019). Gajendran and Harrison (2007) defined telecommuting as an alternate work arrangement in which employees execute duties offsite that are traditionally conducted in primary or central workplaces, for at least some portion of their work schedule, using electronic media to engage with others inside and outside the organisation. Telework is further defined by International Labour Organisation as the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, or desktop computers for work undertaken outside the workplace (ILO, 2020).
The sudden implementation of WFH has contributed to many problems. Many researches were done to study the difficulties or problems arising from this new WFH practice (Mensah & Adjei, 2020;Pirzadeh & Lingard, 2021;Ramachandran, 2020). This unexpected widespread adoption of home-based teleworking was unprecedented. As a result, the ability to devise plans to safeguard workers' health and safety was limited (Pirzadeh & Lingard,2021). There have been numerous mistakes and imbalances as a result of many organisations and individuals not being prepared for the same. Many times, the line between work and nonwork has been crossed. In addition, a lack of leisure and other activities and the current circumstance's Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt (FUD) have exacerbated the problem (Ramachandran, 2020). In addition, Work-Life Conflict also can escalate due to the blurred line (WLC). Work-life conflict occurs when one domain's responsibilities interfere with another, resulting in a lack of balance. Poor physical health, poor self-reported health, psychological distress, poor mental health, and life dissatisfaction can all be linked to work-life conflict (Mensah & Adjei, 2020).
Considering the challenges experienced by telecommuters and to improve their well-being, this article reviews the literature on work from home and work life balance by further reviewing some of the challenges experienced by telecommuters in a pandemic situation. Identification of critical resources such as self-efficacy and flow influencing WLB will also be reviewed. An individual's sense of self-efficacy can play a significant role in regulating himself or herself in approaching specific goals and tackling difficult situations. On the other hand, flow explores a happy state of mind called flow, the feeling of complete engagement in a creative or playful activity." During flow, people typically experience deep enjoyment, creativity and a total involvement with life (Bakker & Van Woerkom, 2017;Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) Flow is more likely to happen when people see a balance between the challenge of a situation and their skills to deal with it (Bakker & van Woerkom, 2017). Besides discussing telecommuters' challenges and critical resources such as self-efficacy and flow, relevant theories related to this topic will also be reviewed from selected journal articles. Hence, this paper summarises what is known, identifies conceptual gaps, and offers vital insight and recommendations for improving telecommuters' work-life balance.

Methods
Relevant articles published between 1990 to 2021 were identified for review using keywords such as work life balance, work from home, telecommuters, self-efficacy, flow, theories of WLB and many more. Inclusion criteria for review articles are any work life balance and well-being articles in relation to the topic of review. Articles before and after pandemics are also included in this review due to limited articles discussing certain variables in a new norm, WFH, in a pandemic situation. Some wellbeing articles are also considered for inclusion since WLB and well-being are interrelated constructs. According to Kashyap, Joseph, & Deshmukh (2016), well-being, in general, is seen as a life well lived. It is a broader concept which refers to overall individual's life both on and off the job (Kashyap et al., 2016). Hoffmann-Burdzińska & Rutkowska (2015) have concluded that work-life balance is related to an individual's psychological well-being and overall sense of harmony in life. Hoffmann-Burdzinska & Rutkowska (2015) highlighted work-life balance issue as a factor influencing well-being. Organisations can be significant sources of employees' well-being. The interrelatedness between work life balance, and well-being is further supported by Fotiadis (2019), who claims the ability to balance work and personal activities helps employees improve the quality of their work well-being. Hence, this review has included some well-being articles too.

Challenges of WFH
Many current researches have highlighted the challenges experienced by telecommuters during pandemic situation (Allen, Merlo, Lawrence, Slutsky & Gray, 2021;Bhumika, 2020;Carillo, Cachat-Rosset, Marsan, Saba & Klarsfeld, 2021;Lagarde, 2020). According to Carillo, et al., (2021), in comparison to telework performed in a traditional setting, telework prompted by a pandemic has unique characteristics. The freedom of location and working time that telework is designed to provide, is no longer allowed in the covid-19 context. Home confinement is imposed, teleworking becomes a full-time requirement, and teleworkers frequently face aggravated professional and personal issues. In addition, telework has become mandatory with no employee agreement, become full-time mode of working, with no time for preparation for teleworkers, managers, organisations, and has the potential for lack of teleworking equipment. Furthermore, with the availability of computers and mobile devices at home, employees are finding it difficult to detach from work (Lagarde, 2020). Palumbo, Manna and Cavallone (2021) study implies due to the blurring of the lines between work and everyday life, home-based telecommuting may cause work-to-life and life-to-work problems swiftly and effectively.
Allen et al (2021); Bhumika (2020) used boundary theory to prove working from home was quite challenging for most employees. Whether they were residing single or with family, they had to participate in some home duties. During the lockdown, balancing job and family obligations was a difficult task for everyone who worked. According to boundary theory, people construct and maintain physical, temporal, and psychological borders around them, in order to simplify their functioning in the environment around them (Bhumika, 2020;Allen et al, 2021). According to Allen et al (2021), employees with lower segmentation preferences were more likely to gain from shifting to WFH during COVID-19. People who prefer segmentation, on the other hand, are more likely to have negative changes in their work-family interactions. Even those who favour integration may find the novelty of complete overlap difficult to accept, but those who prefer segmentation will face the most difficulty in balancing work and nonwork (Allen et al., 2021).
In addition, employees from Asian countries also experience challenges of WFH. Vyas & Butakhieo (2020), reported Hong Kong's unique working environment makes WFH less favourable for workers, with workers unable to distinguish between personal and professional settings. According to the survey, "employees 35 years and older had to juggle between home and work commitments at the same time," with one possible reason being that people in this region tend to live in multigenerational households, which also means they have less space than their western counterparts, resulting in many distractions and an imbalance between work and home life (Vyas & Butakhieo 2020). Teo (2020) reveals WFH is seen to increase the workers' stress in Singapore, even more compared to COVID-19 front-line worker. Detrimental effects of working from home is further supported by an Indonesian study. Because employees are still accustomed to having fixed working hours, they are unable to divide their time between work and home life (Irawanto, Novianti & Roz, 2021).
Telecommuters also can be distracted at home due to expectations from employees and family members thus leading to blurred boundary between work from home. Because of the telecommuter's ready availability, family members may expect a piece of the telecommuter's time during working hours (Kossek, Thompson, & Lautsch, 2015). According to Hilbrecht et al. (2013), telecommuters appreciate the privacy, anonymity, and flexibility of working from home; but, the pressure to please employers, family members, and oneself can throw work and life off balance. (Miller 2017). Grant, Wallace and Spurgeon (2013)  However, there are also researches which have shown that WLB can be enhanced by working from home. Grant et al (2013) mentioned e-working improves WLB because e-workers are able to blend work and non-work life. In a 2011, Ipsos special report on telecommuting among US employees, 77 percent of respondents 'agreed' or 'strongly agreed' that employees who telecommute are better able to strike a balance between work and family. However, 70 percent of respondents in this poll said that technology has caused a blurring of boundaries because it has brought work into their personal lives, and 48 percent said that telecommuting creates more work-family conflicts. According to a nationwide research in Brazil, 98 percent of call centre agents who work from home reported a better quality of life, including a better quality of family life, owing to the time saved on commuting (93 percent) and having more time for their families (91 percent ) (ILO, 2017). Furthermore, a longitudinal nationally representative sample of 30,000 families in the United Kingdom discovered that homeworking is positively connected to leisure time satisfaction, implying that those who work from home can devote more time to leisure activities (Aczel, Kovacs, Van der Lippe & Szaszi, 2021).

Self-Efficacy & WLB
Many researches' have linked self-efficacy and well-being, however most of the researches were carried out before pandemic. A study by Halim, Zainal, Mastor (2016) also proves the importance of self-efficacy factors as mediating factors in the influence of Personality and Job Performance Malaysian Public Administrator Officers, but not among telecommuters. There are not many researches done on the relationship between self-efficacy of telecommuters and their work life balance during pandemic. However, there are some researches done on the relationship between self-efficacy and work life balance before the pandemic. Sumitha Wiesenfeld, & Garud (2003) research was not conducted during pandemic, but it still manages to provide some indirect insight into the relationship between telecommuters self-efficacy and work adjustment which can be associated with WLB. The results of their survey show that telecommuters' self-efficacy is linked to both employees' behavioural strategies (i.e., structuring behaviours) and job outcomes (i.e., telecommuter adjustment) (Sumitha et al., 2003). This study asserts, telecommuters with better personal resource such as self-efficacy are able to survive difficulties and uncertainties in life. (Sumitha et al. 2003). Similar results linking self-efficacy and ability to survive in difficult circumstances were also revealed by other researchers. Tandon (2017) highlighted people who are self-assured in their abilities see difficult professions as challenges to overcome rather than dangers to avoid. A successful outlook fosters intrinsic interest and thorough engrossment in activities. They set challenging goals for themselves and stick to them with zeal. They continue to amplify and sustain their activities (Tandon, 2017).

Flow, Self-Efficacy & Well-Being
Self-efficacy can influence individual's state of flow. According to Mesurado, Richaud, and Mateo (2016), when college students have a higher sense of computer self-efficacy, their flow experience also increases. Bakker & Van Woerkom (2017), highlights self-efficacy beliefs were both predictors and consequences of flow, thus implying that personal resource has a reciprocal relationship with flow. In addition, a study by Scrima, Civilleri, and Salerno (2016) found that self-efficacy, specifically occupational self-efficacy, mediated the relationship between job insecurity, work engagement, job satisfaction, and health in private and public sector employees. The findings suggest that occupational self-efficacy sources should be considered when planning interventions (Scrima et al., 2016).
There were also many researches linking flow, self-efficacy and well-being (Bakker & Van Woerkom, 2017;Rankin, Walsh, & Sweeny, 2018;Zito, Cortese & Colombo, 2019). Bakker and Van Woerkom (2017) reviewed research on flow at work, and claimed that, rather than reacting passively to their work environment, people can control their own flow experience using self-determination theory. They also assert that factors within the organisational context, such as human resource practices and leadership, as well as personal resources, such as self-efficacy and optimism, moderate the effectiveness of these strategies. According to Zito et al. (2019), flow at work was shown to be favourably connected with job resources, and flow at work was found to be positively associated with happy feelings. The link between these characteristics and happiness/discomfort at work emphasises the necessity of encouraging flow at work and supporting employment resources that foster happy work experiences. Rankin et al. (2018) suggest flow is excellent for enhancing emotional well-being during stressful situations of uncertainty, such as waiting for BAR exam results. Their findings suggest that flow may be an antidote to anxiety caused by uncertainty related distress.

Theories of Work Life Balance
Reviews of articles highlights many WLB theories explaining work life balance and it's relationships with self-efficacy and flow. Some researchers have discussed and used certain theories of WLB in their research before the pandemic (Bakker & Van Woerkom, 2017;Lagarde, 2020;Miller, 2017;Tandon,2017). Bakker Integrates flow and self-determination theories (Bakker & van Woerkom, 2017). Lagarde (2020)  However, there were a few other researchers who have linked their research to current pandemic scenario and provide more meaningful theories which are relevant to the pandemic situation (Allen, Merlo, Lawrence, Slutsky & Gray, 2021;Bhumika, 2020;& Carillo, 2020). Allen et al. (2021) and Bhumika (2020) used Boundary Theory to explain work life balance of telecommuters in a pandemic situation. Carillo (2020) on the other hand has introduced Crisis induced Telework Adjustment framework, which he formed from the combination of Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) and the Interactional Model of Individual.  (Carillo,2020). Table 1 : Summary of relevant literatures and theory of WLB used before and after pandemic.
The major conceptual frameworks pertaining to work and life domains, however are actually wider. Spill-over, compensation, work-family conflict, resource drain, enrichment, congruence, segmentation, integration, role theories, border theory, boundary management theory, gender inequality theory, work-life management theory and ecological theories are some of the common theories covered in WLB studies (Gayathri,2016). Conservation of Resources Theory is without a doubt is one of the most significant theories for understanding human stress and happiness. The COR hypothesis explains how people react to stresses in their environment and how those encounters affect their well-being. The first assumption of COR theory is that people try to get, keep, and guard resources, and that stress occurs when they are on the verge of losing, or have already lost, those resources. COR theory's second important premise is that resources can generate new resources. This practise is known as "resource caravans," which refers to the fact that resources are delivered in bundles. When there are no stressors, people try to get more resources (Ten Brummelhuis, & Bakker, 2012).

Conceptual Framework
Inspired by COR theory and Crisis Induced Work proposed by Carillo (2020) (please refer to table 1 above), this article based on earlier discussion of reviews suggests a Crisis Induced Resources and Balance framework as in figure 1 below. The major theory contributing to the formulation of this framework is COR theory which is most influential in explaining the contribution of self-efficacy and flow in promoting work life balance. COR is a stress theory of WLB which could be more relevant to be applied in a pandemic situation. This framework can explain individual's behaviour in reacting to stress in a difficult environment which is associated with WFH during pandemic. Whether or not an individual experiences WLB or WLC is very much dependent on key resources such as self-efficacy and flow. Based on COR Theory, the common assumption will be, people will try their best to obtain, cultivate and protect to their valuable resources which are self-efficacy and flow. Depletion of this resources may lead to stress and work life conflict. The above framework also illustrates resource caravan where possession of self-efficacy skills can generate experiences of flow which is supported by most research in review. When there are no strains, such as work family conflict and pandemic situation, people will try to accumulate more self-efficacy and flow resources (Farradinnah et al., 2020). Hence this framework suggests, accumulation of these key resources can help people to feel more selfregulated, stable, calm, positive and happy even during a pandemic situation.

Discussions
Although there has been an increase in study on work-life balance and tools that help improve WLB over the last decade, there is still considerable work to be done to understand, assess, and encourage WLB of telecommuters in a pandemic situation. The research's contradicting findings review, illustrates working from home has both advantages and drawbacks. It has many benefits, but when it's implemented in a forced manner in an unprecedented situation such as during pandemic, employees were unprepared and experience negative emotions such as fear, uncertainty and doubt. This situation could have escalated further by employees' lack of skill in using technology and this situation can affect worker's efficacy in managing their time, work and life which leads to poor balance. Social distancing could also further increase this problem since employees might just suppress their difficulties within themselves without sharing their problems in attaining work life balance with others. This could also lead to poor perception of social support . Hence, WFH itself can be beneficial but it has to be done with proper planning and policy implementation to avoid problems leading to poor work life balance.
Most research were able to show positive correlation between resources such as self-efficacy, flow and work life balance. Self-efficacy is, without a doubt, the most researched personal resource that has been linked to flow and work-life balance. This happens because efficacy beliefs encourage people to predict positive and bad consequences from various endeavours and to devise a strategy for achieving desired outcomes. Flow on the other hand can induce happy feeling and act as another SELF EFFICACY WLB/WLC FLOW resource which helps to improve one's well-being especially in difficult time. Hence, by focusing on positive psychology to cope with life challenges such as Covid-19, people can foster and strengthen key personal resources (Abu Bakar, 2020). Self-efficacy and flow can serve as coping mechanism in helping people to cope with difficulties. Those with self-efficacy can regulate themselves better in managing their life and work and flow experiences can help to boost positive thoughts and emotions during pandemic situation. Work-life balance, especially during uncertain times like COVID-19, is essential to employees' growth and personal happiness and company retention.
Review of relevant theories affecting work life balance contributed to the development of Crisis Induced Resources and Balance framework. Based on this framework, people can acquire important valuable resources to help them survive in this difficult situation. It's very important to stay positive and cheerful during pandemic situation. Recognition of these key resources can help people to emanate positive energies, improve individual's resilience and mental strengths.

Conclusion
Difficulties experienced by telecommuters while WFH in a pandemic situation can be attributed to a forced and precipitous implementation of WFH without clear policy and guideline. This sudden intervention has also failed to prepare telecommuters to deal with the challenges of working from home. Environmental strain such as dealing with a pandemic situation has made the situation worse. Literatures also imply, while working from home during the lockdown, employees could have struggled in creating and maintaining boundaries due to which they might have experienced some difficulties in maintaining WLB.
However, exploration of the current situation in this review, could provide unique insight into how to work from home effectively, and could serve as a major pathway to change the current way of working from home to a more flexible practice. Telecommuters themselves can make an effort to improve their difficulties by managing boundaries. They should take initiative to set boundary between personal workspace and professional duties, away from personal distractions and still liaise with managers. They can also set and follow a proper schedule which clearly segregates the time they are suppose to work and interact with family members. They can be more mindful on their time spent on certain activities and handle distractions better. Besides that, they can be more assertive in communicating their difficulties in setting boundary to those distracting them. Most importantly, they need to learn to be more efficacious and create flow experiences. Hence, these resources can also provide employees with job crafting experiences. Through job crafting, employees can be proactive and utilise opportunities to customize their jobs by actively changing their tasks and interactions with others at work.
However, employees' effort to be more in control of the situation and make appropriate changes to their work arrangement might not be effective, if they lack support or resources from their employer or government (Abdul Aziz, 2018). Government and employers also need to provide important resources for employees to work from home (Abdullah et al., 2018). They can arrange a more conducive and flexible telework arrangements, with clear WFH guidelines adhering to proper Standard Operating Procedures (SOP). Hence, this guidelines, can help to prevent employees from being connected 24/7 with work commitment via technology. Most importantly, proper guidance and training should be given to employees on WFH practices. Employees who are quite poor in using technology can be sent for training without demeaning them. It's very crucial for management to show support and understanding towards telecommuters' challenges. Management can provide counselling services to telecommuters who are struggling with the challenges of WFH. Besides that, companies can also formulate family friendly policies to foster social support during pandemic situation.

Limitations
There are some limitations in this review which must be acknowledged to facilitate future research efforts. The nature of this research itself which is a conceptual review, might not be sufficient to provide a meaningful practical application of improvement of telecommuters' balance. Hence future researchers can also consider utilising or combining other qualitative and quantitative research methods such survey methods, experimental methods, interview, focus group and observations.
In the current review, the inclusion criteria is not stringent enough since the articles reflecting the relationship of chosen variables with other variables in pandemic situations might not be sufficient enough in the current context, to reflect the true influence of the variable in a pandemic situation. Hence future researchers can also consider including more inclusive articles. In future there will be more articles discussing the new norm WFH in a pandemic situation, thus the inclusion criteria for chosen literatures in future can be more stringent in terms of only including telecommuting or utilisation of key resources in a pandemic situation.
The current review also failed to explore other meaningful variables such as culture and gender differences. Individual differences can also influence the variables relationship with intended outcome or behaviour. Therefore, future researches can consider including individual differences or traits such as culture, gender, Intelligent Quotient, Emotional Quotient and social background in similar research topic as this.