Border Security Cooperation Framework: Analysis from The Perspective of Boundary Making Theory

Border security is often a priority for many countries, which is widely used as a study in international borders. The dynamic and bordering national security landscape has demanded the country to be more alert and cautious in managing this complex border security. When it involves bordering countries, it is related to cooperation between two parties. Therefore, border security cooperation is an important aspect to ensure the bordering countries are well managed and safe from various transnational threats at border. Transnational threats that regularly occur involve human trafficking and smuggling, as well as the invasion of illegal immigrant and terrorists, which risk border security and affect the country and people, especially border communities. All these transnational threats are difficult to control by a country and require border security cooperation. However, there is no clear definition of border security cooperation and many gaps that require exploration from the context of analytical framework to evaluate the effectiveness of border security cooperation. Therefore, this article will present an analysis framework of Comprehensive Border Security Cooperation Model (CBSC Model), which was developed by researchers, based on adaptation from Boundary Making Theory. Basically, this theory emphasizes the role of state actor in border management of a country, but it does not deny the role of other actors, namely border communities, politicians, and international actors. The CBSC model lists six (6) important components that can be used as a guide in forming a comprehensive security cooperation framework to ensure that border security cooperation is implemented effectively.


Introduction
This study was conducted through a library research approach, utilizing books, journal articles, and theses as primary references in developing the CBSC Model.By using the Boundary Making Theory (BMT) as the main foundation for the model, the researcher explored the existing scholarly literature on BMT and how it is applied in comprehensive border security management.Subsequently, the researcher adapted it, considering various aspects, including actors and components, to provide guidelines and measures for the effectiveness of border security cooperation.In developing the CBSC Model, the researcher also explored the concept of border security from a developmental perspective and its significance in international relations, particularly from the perspectives of realism and liberalism, to provide a clearer understanding of border security cooperation.
There is no clear definition of border security, especially in the development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks.Border security is not solely limited to security aspects or focused solely on cross-border activities involving goods and people.International studies on borders indicate a specific change, particularly in how borders work (functional approach).The era of globalization has transformed the approaches and strategies of many countries in border management from closed to integration.Undeniably, borders are economic resources that countries must utilize, especially in the context of economic liberalization, infrastructure networks, and communication.The term "borderless world" has emerged.However, at the same time, borders remain a priority for countries, especially concerning sovereignty, territorial integrity, and core values.
Various approaches have been implemented by countries at the international level to balance security and economic needs.One of these approaches is border security cooperation between countries.Through the researcher's reading, it is evident that border security cooperation has shown both successful and failed instances, with ongoing improvements.Numerous factors influence the effectiveness of such cooperation framework.Political factors are the most dominant, and recently, external factors like health issues (e.g., the Covid-19 pandemic) can also impact the effectiveness of cooperation.In this regard, the objective of this study is to propose a model that can serve as a guideline in establishing a comprehensive border security cooperation framework, considering all aspects, including the functions and roles of state and non-state actors.

Development of International Border Security
The study of borders, also known as limology, is an interdisciplinary field that has developed alongside other areas such as political science, sociology, ethnology, anthropology, economics, geography, and technical sciences.Kolossov (2005) in his book titled 'Border Studies: Changing Perspectives and Theoretical Approaches' stated that the study of borders is a highly complex social phenomenon and interrelated with aspects of organization in the community or society as well as human psychology.According to Kolossov, differences in views and perspectives among scholars who have been studying borders for years require a new creation in theory that can combine various aspects of the contemporary political border system.
Significant developments have occurred since the concept of the Nation-State, established through the Westphalian Treaty of 1648, opened a new chapter in modern political history where military power and territorial integrity became priorities for many countries, particularly in Europe (Amsir, 2021).The late 1950s witnessed a shift in the approach to the study of international border security, with more focus on state borders and their influence on international relations and how they affect a country's approach and strategy in managing conflicts, territorial disputes, security, and harmony.
After the Cold War, many border After the Cold War, many border security studies revolved around the importance of the border in international relations, with the arrival of globalization era that has influenced the country policies and how borders have given new perspectives especially from the political and economic liberalization aspects including the use of technology and communication networks.The state or government plays the main role that acts as an important actor in connecting the paradigm or aspect of international relations with the need for territorial integrity and national security.In other words, the country or government needs to set aside conflicts that occur at border and develop good relations with neighbouring countries, especially in terms of communication networks and infrastructure.
In this context, Kolossov also described the developments that have occurred in the study of international borders as shown in Table 1 below.He stated that the study of borders has evolved from geography and history in the late 19th century to the functional approach in the early 1950s.Currently, border security studies are more directed towards political science and the geopolitical approach, which examines the paradigm of international relations with the function of a country's borders, especially in managing conflicts.Border evolution in balance of power context with neighboring countries.

Early 1950s
Functional approach Cross-border movement study of people, goods, and information.
The concept of border area gives various dimensions in social phenomena.

Political Science & Geopolitical approaches
Study of national borders and their influence in international conflicts.
Assessment of international conflicts and border characteristics that affect conflict.
Source: Adapted from Kolossov (2005) Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the number of international borders has increased, and the narrow ideology of international border cooperation has begun to decline, especially for countries that require border cooperation to resolve territorial claims.The impact of globalization and economic liberalization has increased awareness of the importance of international cooperation and stimulated the gradual evolution of national borders from closed to more open (integration).The era of globalization has also contributed to the strengthening of border cooperation institutions and paved the way for conflict resolution between two neighbouring countries based on agreed international agreements/laws.The study of international borders has grown to include various aspects including social, economic, political, and even security.While most countries today see borders as having economic potential, security remains the foundation for any approach and strategy at the borders, especially concerning threats to national security.
Political influence also affects the development of international border studies, particularly in terms of security aspects.During the tenure of US President Donald Trump, border control in the US became stricter, and relations between bordering countries became more tense.Besides, the access of border residents to cross border and carry out activities also reduced due to the strict control implemented.A similar situation occurred in the UK in 2011 when Theresa May, the Home Secretary, announced temporary border control measures to avoid long queues at entry points, which sparked anger among citizens and opposition who felt that such actions could threaten national security, particularly regarding the entry of terrorists (Leonard, 2015).
Changes in security threats faced by a country also influence the development of international border studies.For example, a study by Evans (2022) on the Gambia-Casamance border in southern Senegal, Africa, showed that the region faced the threat of infiltration by terrorists, smuggling, and espionage in the early 1940s but later shifted to the exploitation of natural resources, including timber, crossing the border by separatist groups in the 1980s.Similarly, the study on the "Schengen Area," an agreement among 26 European countries formally abolishing passport controls at entry points and all other border controls between participating countries.From 2015 to 2016, a migration and refugee crisis led to temporary border controls through inspections at intra-Schengen borders.From 2016 to 2020, temporary border controls were extended to address migrant entry and violence, and starting in 2020, controls were continued to address the spread of the Covid-19 pandemic affecting all countries, including those in the Schengen Area (Gulzau, 2021).It can be observed here that security threats at the border can occur at all levels, including domestic (local and national) and international (transnational).
The development of international border studies is significantly influenced by transnational threats faced by a country and political influence through the formation of new policies and strategies.As mentioned earlier, globalization has led to borders being viewed not only from a security perspective but also developing in tandem with economic liberalization, the use of technology, and communication networks.The evolution of international border studies has attracted the interest of scholars to make border security a research agenda, where the issues studied also change according to the flow of time.However, the changes that occur still revolve around security aspects, namely the threats faced, and the latest developments related to socio-economic, health, and political issues.

Border Security in The Context of International Relations
Borders are closely related to international relations as they are often seen in the context of security and sovereignty between two neighbouring countries.To ensure that borders are always safe from various transnational threats, cooperation between two countries is crucial because it is not possible to fully address border security issues relying solely on the capability of one country.This is due to policy that must involve both parties to curb the threat, where the previous threats more to security, but with passage of time, it includes various aspects such as political, social, and economic.
For this reason, scholars have been studying and presenting various theories related to the exercise of power and cooperation by countries to demonstrate the implementation of measures taken to ensure their safety against border-crossing threats.This includes the policies and strategies that a country adopts to safeguard the security and sovereignty of its borders.In this subtopic, the researcher will explore previous studies in the context of applying international relations theories, particularly realism and liberalism.Essentially, both theories are suitable for examining a country's behavior towards border security through the implementation of the country's approaches and strategies.
Realism was very dominant in international relations after the Second World War ended with the assumption that most countries would maintain their power (offensive capacity) to avoid being attacked by other countries.Indirectly it affects the role of borders in international relations which is more viewed from a military and survival perspective (Bayeh & Baltos, 2019).Throughout the past century, the theory of realism has driven knowledge and research related to international relations by highlighting the importance of borders, especially from a military perspective by considering that the common security and survival of the country is dependent on the role of borders in controlling domestic military activities and external competition.
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War.The peaceful end of the Cold War changed not only the global landscape but also the debates in international relations theories.Additionally, globalization in international relations has weakened the significance of military concerns as barriers and physical border lines, shifting focus towards aspects such as economics, social, and environmental concerns (Bayeh & Baltos, 2019).At this stage, a shift towards neorealism can be observed as countries consider socio-political aspects in international affairs and tend to opt for cooperative approaches with other nations to achieve national security and welfare.However, neorealism still does not believe in the role of international institutions as transnational actors because, for them, international institutions lack any influence that could trigger wars (Nugroho, 2008).
In contrast to realism and neorealism, liberalism recognizes the role of transnational actors when the central players fail to assess the interests of power.Burchill et al (2013) describe liberalism as a form of democracy that opposes authoritarianism to achieve security through conflict resolution, interdependence, institutional cooperation, and free trade, defying protectionism in the broader world.Essentially, liberalism is an ideology that prioritizes the concept of individual rights, believing that everyone has equal rights.At the same time, liberalism emphasizes domestic elements in international relations, including a country's engagement in bilateral and multilateral international systems.In the context of borders, liberalism believes that no restrictions should be imposed by governments and emphasizes the importance of free trade of goods and movement of people across borders.
Liberalism differs from realism in that it believes in conflict resolution through international cooperation in economic aspects, political freedom, individual rights, and so forth (Jumarang, 2011).It argues that the shift from realism to liberalism is seen as a redefinition of 'power' from military capability to economic and social status that creates the need for greater relations and increased cooperation in facing new pressures of globalization.Liberalism leads to practical security theories achieved amidst the condition of anarchy (realism) as states seek power.Although realism and liberalism bring different views and claims, both reflect a variety of aspects in international relations to understand state behaviour, particularly regarding border security.

Boundary Making Theory in Raising The Country Role
The term of Boundary Making Theory was initially used in the book written by Holdich in 1916.But it was given a new perspective by Jones in 1945, a geographer from the United States (US).During the Second World War, the US invited Jones to prepare a writing (practical handbook) about how the government plays a role in forming a practical national border that is in line with international norms.Jones's idea was originally to prepare a border to face the Second World War after the First World War.As a result, Jones has written a book titled " Boundary-Making Study: A Handbook for Statesmen, Treaty Editors and Boundary Commissioners" which has introduced a simple model in the boundary making process.This model, among others, raises the role of the state/government in providing territorial allocations to deal with border conflicts (allocation), enacting laws through agreements in determine border lines (delimitation), place border lines as marks (demarcation) and determining the administrative line that control the border (administration).This model remains as the main guide in borders formation by the government to date.
According to Sumaryo (2016), the model introduced by Jones does not only involve the role of government, but it is closely related to bilateral relations between neighbouring countries.For example, to set the border line of a country, negotiations with neighbouring countries are very important to achieve agreement from both countries on the set border line.It is in addition to provide a legal framework to protect the interests of the agreed borders.Figure 1 shows the boundary making process introduced by Jones (1945).Therefore, the process of boundary making introduced by Jones involves a large role of the state/government in ensuring that national boundaries can be formed effectively.For example, the allocation stage involves the political role of both countries to determine territorial sovereignty that can be recognized by both countries.Then, at the delimitation stage, the country/government needs to determine the border line and provide a legal framework that can protect the interests of border through an agreement or any treaty.Besides, at the demarcation stage, it involves the responsibility of the country/government to build signs (border marker) or any border infrastructure that can distinguish the territory of the two neighbouring countries.At the end of the process, which is administration, it involves the responsibility of the state/government to build a border administration team comprises of control and enforcement activities, entry points and other activities that ensure the national border security.The model by Jones is seen as very practical in providing technical guidance for a country in managing its respective borders.

Boundary Making Theory Development in Border Security Management
However, Pratt (2010) claims that the model introduced by Jones has limitations which cannot meet the needs of current complex border management.Pratt claims that the role of the state/government in boundary formation does not end at these four boundaries making processes and there are processes that no longer a priority.For example, in today's era, allocation may not be important because most borders between countries have been settled and only some small border areas are involved with overlapping claims.According to Pratt, the issue that needs to be focused by the country/government is maintenance.Many scholars, especially among legal practitioners and diplomats, feel that border formation will be completed when the border has been finalized with neighbouring countries, as well as the border line has been marked (delimitation & demarcation), but in fact there are many border management issues that need to be addressed by the country/government including the entry and exit of goods and people to support economic development.At the same time, the country/government needs to ensure security at the border by implementing effective security governance measures.This means, in addition to ensure security at border by providing teams and personnel, there are also matter that the country/government needs to  It can be seen that Pratt's view has developed the Jones model by unraveling the diversity of issues at border which causes the need to improve border management, compare to Pratt that focuses on the security governance component through an integration approach between two bordering countries, as well as to develop economy (border prosperity).However, the two models introduced by Pratt and Jones still see the state/government as the main actor (state actor) that determines the formation and function of the border, especially from the security and economic aspects.However, researchers seen that non-state actors also playing an important role in border security management, especially involving communities at border.It is in line with the writing by Wimmer (2013) in his book entitled "Ethnic Boundary Making: Institutions, Power, Networks" that states the actions of forming boundaries by border actors such as government and politicians have led to "ethnic boundaries" and divisions at border.This view is supported by Barrick (2015) in his writing entitled "Possible Criminal Activity A foot: The Politics of Race and Boundary-Making in the United States Pacific Northwest Borderland" which focus on the influence of community/ethnicity in the boundaries formation.According to Barrick, although there is strict control at the US-Mexico/Canada border by security agencies deployed, it is difficult to change the community's perception, especially regarding racial issues.As a result, conflicts related to ethnicity and the influx of migrants at the borders still occur.This raises the question of whether the strict control implemented by the Government can help alleviate the conflict triggered by the border community.Although the Government is only carrying out its responsibility in ensuring border security, it also the need to accept communities that have certain sensitivities based on the perception.Communities or societies at border are likely to be comfortable with activities that have been carried out for centuries even though the Government considers them as crimes.This situation prompts the government to act flexibly in the implementation of any policy to strengthen border security and community, so that it can be well managed.
Barrick also stated that the formation of the US land border with Mexico is through a heavily guarded border zone with armed authorities openly patrolling, assigning new personnel to the border, monitoring the border area, securing the territorial borders (north and south), increasing transparency, maintaining a large number of personnel and infrastructure to control racist threats and limit patrols to focus on broader efforts for migrant justice and anti-racism.Barrick's study supports Pratt's statement to evaluate the initiative taken at border whether it shows success or not and it is necessary to analyze the root of the security issue that occurs to be fully addressed.
Another scholar who studies border security management in the context of Boundary Making Theory is Fawcett et al (2018).In his article entitled "Governance, public policy and boundary-making", Fawcett et al. have claimed that there is a significant gap in understanding between policy makers and academics, due to the lack of exploration in the border security management field.A study by Fawcett et al. analyses how the governance and public policy implemented can affect border management, not only in the context of security but other aspects such as politics, society (societal) and economy.The increasingly complex issue of borders has caused many countries to endeavour various approaches and strategies in managing borders.By placing state as the actor in borders formation, Fawcett et al. does not deny the influence of community (societal) and politics especially in the formulation of policies and border management.Fawcett et al. also stated that it is important the borders formation by the government to focus on governance issues (local, regional, national, and global) through the establishment of specialized institutions or organizations, in managing borders to avoid governance issues involving lack of coordination and 'working in silo' sentiments, between agencies.
Based on development of Boundary Making Theory in border security management by these past scholars, the researchers found that each of them has dissected the involvement of different actors at border, and each has an interest in contributing to determining the border formation direction.Although the state/government is still the main actor in Boundary Making Theory, other actors such as politicians, communities and international are also considered in today's border security management.In addition, aspects to be considered in borders formation are security governance, legal framework mechanisms, economy, society (societal), cross-border crime and political bureaucracy, which has been covered in previous studies by scholars.For that, the researchers feel there is a need to combine all these aspects in a more effective border formation process through a comprehensive security cooperation framework.

The Cbsc Model As A Comprehensive Cooperation Framework
By using Boundary Making Theory as the basis of model formation, this study has explored the writings by four (4) scholars on border security management in context of Boundary Making Theory.Although there are many other scholars who in the same view but from different perspectives.There are also scholars who study Boundary Making Theory in context of maritime borders and some in a technical perspective (delimitation & demarcation).Therefore, in context of this study, the researchers will only focus on the arguments from the views of these four (4) scholars as table 2 below.4) scholars that are seen to be very significant to the formation of CBSC model.The model created by previous scholars such as Jones, only considers some components and actors, which is not comprehensive.Due to that, researchers developed a model that considers all components and actors.Hence, the model are focuses on the established of security cooperation, where cooperation is an aspect that determines the formation of effectiveness and comprehensive borders.As a result of this comparison, the researcher has identified the main necessity to form a comprehensive border security cooperation framework.In summary, there are two main elements in this CBSC model, first is the components of border security cooperation and second is the actors' roles and functions within the cooperation framework.

i. Components and Actors in the CBSC Model
Through this CBSC model, the researchers try to highlight a new approach that can be used by the country or government as a guide in carrying out border cooperation where the formation of border will be comprehensive.This can be seen when the components highlight a combination of components that have been developed and improved by previous scholars, where each of them has an importance at the border.When all of this is combined, it will form an effective and comprehensive border security cooperation framework.The components in CBSC model are formed based on main requirements in border security cooperation framework and each component reflects the requirements that need to be implemented by a country to ensure the effectiveness of the cooperation formed.
In summary, the researchers outline six (6) main components that fulfil border security cooperation, namely legal framework, border institution, government commitment (political will), security governance, societal integration, and border prosperity.Meanwhile, the main actors involved in all these components are border communities, politicians, countries/governments, and international actors including bordering countries and international actors.The description of the components is in table 3 below.

Actors: Government
Border security cooperation requires a clear legal framework either through an agreement or MoU between the cooperating countries.This legal framework can be used as a direction for cooperation that will be implemented from aspect of role and function, as well as the operation of cooperation framework.

Actors: Government / International Institution
The need to create a border cooperation institution for both countries as a platform to meet, discuss and achieve agreement in border cooperation.Besides, it also enables the implementation of programs and activities to be well planned, implemented and evaluated through this established institution.

Actors: Government
A strong and consistent commitment from the government, especially in aspect of formulating policies related to security cooperation at domestic level, as well as support in form of financial aspect in implementing the agreed programs and activities within the established of cooperation framework.

Security Governance
The effectiveness of security governance includes aspects of inter-agency coordination, state capacity and capability Components Description Actors: Government gaps, inter-agency cooperation in reducing bureaucracy and avoiding working in silos, as well as integrity among members and border security forces.

ii. CBSC Model Analysis Framework
After determining the requirements for border security cooperation framework through the components that have been established, it is important for the researchers to present an analytical framework that can be used in evaluating the effectiveness of the cooperation framework formed.By using the level of analysis, each component will be measured through three levels, namely the country, institution, and community.According to Gebhard (2022), the level of analysis allows the understanding of context and issue to be analysed better, especially involving actors at each level.Therefore, the analysis framework of CBSC model is shown in figure 4 below.
At national level, analysis involves two (2) measured components, namely legal framework, and government's commitment.Among factors that could influence these two components are country interests, political bureaucracy, and trust deficit, which underlies the formation of legal framework and government's commitment to security cooperation.At institutional level, it involves two (2) components, namely border institutions and security governance.There are many factors that can affect these two components.Among them are the issue of coordination and cooperation between agencies, the structure and function of border institutions that are formed and the gap in state capacity and capability.While at community level, it involves two (2) components, namely community integration and border prosperity.Among factors that can influence this component are involvement of non-state actors whether communities, NGO, or private sectors in improving border security and comprehensive economic benefits for community at border, and the country (economic liberalization, infrastructure network and communication).
CBSC Model are important as measurement benchmark for security cooperation to assess whether the six (6) components in CBSC Model have been successfully handled and dealt, to ensure that the cooperation is stable and strong where all these components are exposed to factors that constrain stability and strengthening of the established cooperation.By ensuring strong and stable security cooperation, it can lead to integrity border formation for a country.

Conclusion
Border security is very important for a country, especially when it reflects a country's sovereignty and security.Through the border, various threats whether internal or external are at risk if not dealt comprehensively.To ensure that border security is remain guaranteed and controlled, most bordering countries will establish border security cooperation, as a mechanism to determine border matters.Without cooperation, it is impossible for a country to deal with internal and external threats that exist not only from within the country, but from other bordering countries.
Security cooperation is often used at international level to help improve security not only at borders, but other security issues related to country geopolitics.Border security cooperation, whether from international or regional levels, is seen to have the same purpose, which is to share resources and expertise in ensuring national border security.However, there are challenges and weaknesses in border security cooperation stated by previous researchers, particularly in the context of globalization, cross-border crime, technological development, gaps in state capacity and capability, and the influence of politics and local communities.All these factors are seen to have an impact on the effectiveness of security cooperation that has been formed.
From border security development aspect, the existence of various transnational threats has changed the country's approach towards border security cooperation whether bilateral or multilateral involving state and non-state actors.In summary, border security cooperation is a mechanism used by sovereign countries in international relations through the formation of foreign policy bilaterally (diplomacy) or multilaterally (institutions/regimes) to solve social, economic, environmental, and regional community's issues with neighbouring countries.However, contemporary studies mostly focus specifically on bordering countries and issues that occur at the border.The fact that most important is the border foundation or roots where it is necessary to understand the border formation because through it, the components in the border analysis can be unravelled whether it is comprehensive or not.Therefore, CBSC model has outlined six (6) main components that fulfil border security cooperation, namely legal framework, border institutions, government commitment (political will), security governance, societal integration and border prosperity which is significant to the effectiveness of border security cooperation framework.Meanwhile, the main actors involved in these components are border communities, politicians, countries/governments, and international actors.In addition, the researchers also developed an analysis framework via three (3) levels of analysis, namely the country, institution, and community.It is important to measure the aspects and factors that might influence cooperation to ensure it can be assessed as comprehensive.It is crucial because most countries have not fully reached the level of border security cooperation, which may affect the effectiveness level of border formation and security to bordering countries.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Boundary Making Process Model Source: Jones (1945) as environmental protection issues, infrastructure development at border and effective cross-border management.

Table 1
Development of International Border Studies

Table 2
Comparison of Boundary Making Theory Studies by four scholars.