Comparative Analysis of National Automotive Policies with a Focus on Sustainable Development: Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Union (EU), and the USA

This journal article presents a comparative analysis of national automotive policies, specifically focusing on sustainable development in Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, Europe


Introduction
The automobile sector impacts worldwide economic development, technical progress, and environmental sustainability (Cioca, 2019;Miglani, 2019;Jia, 2023).This journal article compares the sustainable development strategies of Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, Europe, and the US in the automobile sector.Vision, goals, regulatory frameworks, research and development, sustainable mobility, and environmental sustainability in the automobile industry are examined (Hosseini, 2023;Zhao, 2023;Badri Narayanan, 2023).The article

Malaysia
According to the Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA, 2021), Malaysia's National Car Policy (NAP) needs to address environmental and sustainability issues related to the auto industry.The goal of lowering greenhouse gas emissions should be ambitious.According to Songkin (2023), the National Automotive Policy (NAP) in Malaysia places a significant emphasis on promoting the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles as a means to develop a transportation system that is more environmentally sustainable.The widespread adoption of electric vehicles necessitates the establishment of a resilient network of charging stations.As a result, Alganad (2023) emphasizes that the National Action Plan (NAP) must place a significant emphasis on the availability and accessibility of electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure.According to Rahman (2017), carefully recycling batteries can reduce emissions from electric vehicles.
To mitigate the ecological consequences associated with the sector, the National Action Plan (NAP) must advocate for using sustainable materials and implementing environmentally conscious manufacturing practices (Sulaiman, 2023).According to Fernando (2021), providing grants and tax breaks can incentivize the advancement of environmentally friendly technologies in the automotive industry.In order to mitigate emissions and alleviate traffic congestion, the management of end-of-life vehicles must incorporate recycling and appropriate disposal practices (Sulaiman, 2023;Ali, 2023).
To promote the adoption of environmentally sustainable automobiles, the National Action Plan (NAP) may incorporate various measures, such as tax incentives and subsidies.These measures could encompass tax breaks specifically targeted toward electric vehicle owners and reduced road tax rates for vehicles with low emissions (Hong, 2013;Asadi, 2021).The NAP could promote public awareness and understanding of sustainable transportation through public education.In order to effectively execute, there must be a collaborative effort among various stakeholders, including the government, the car industry, environmental organizations, and the general public (Bong, 2022).The necessity of regularly evaluating and analyzing the NAP is crucial in order to effectively respond to evolving circumstances and meet the objectives of sustainability (Husain, 2022).

Japan
The Japanese government has taken measures to address automotive sustainability and environmental concerns (Suwa, 2020).Usman (2023) claims that several projects in the automobile sector concentrate on adopting electric vehicles (EVs), reducing pollutants, advancing green technologies, and incorporating renewable energy sources.Nevertheless, the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is impeded by several factors, including a scarcity of charging infrastructure, battery production, and recycling challenges, concerns regarding range anxiety, and comparatively higher initial costs (METI, 2020).Setting welldefined targets and applying efficient approaches to reduce greenhouse gas emissions linked to transportation-related activities is critical to maintaining the transportation industry.According to Schulz (2019), it is advisable to promote the utilization of public transportation, cycling, and automobile sharing, while prioritizing the development of charging infrastructure centered around renewable energy sources.
Tax incentives and reduced taxes could encourage the adoption of environmentally friendly vehicles.Implementing efficient procedures for recycling used cars is essential to reducing the adverse effects on the environment (NEDO, 2022).The dissemination of information to the general public regarding the environmental consequences of the automotive industry and the benefits associated with environmentally friendly modes of transportation is of utmost importance (Gutowski, 2005).Solving global environmental challenges in the automobile industry requires establishing international collaborative efforts focused on emissions regulations, fuel efficiency standards, and sustainable manufacturing practices (Ali, 2023).In the dynamic automotive sector, conducting regular assessments and making necessary policy adjustments is imperative to effectively attain environmental and sustainability goals (Botta, 2020).

Korea
South Korea has launched numerous measures to address environmental and sustainable responsibilities in the car sector (Murat et al., 2020).Since legislation and situations vary, use the newest sources.South Korea's National Automotive Policy faces environmental and sustainability issues (Ki, 2021).EV adoption is significant (Choi, 2023).They are charging infrastructure, battery technology, and consumer acceptance that slow electric vehicle adoption.Incentives, subsidies, and infrastructure charges may circumvent these limits (Ihm, 2023)-battery technology and recycling matter (Choi Y. a.-W., 2020).Electric vehicle battery manufacturing, disposal, and recycling in South Korea must be environmentally friendly (Chen, 2022).New battery technologies and recycling are needed for EV industry growth (Shafique, 2023).(Myung, 2020).Thus, South Korea's automotive policy should promote low-emission and zero-emission car technology and lower internal combustion engine emissions (Pearce, 2023).
Green technology and sustainable vehicle development are necessary for progress.R&D on electric and hydrogen fuel cell automobiles, lightweight materials, and eco-friendly manufacturing may enhance industrial innovation (Choi, 2023).Hydrogen fuel cells and electric vehicles provide sustainable transportation (Seo, 2020).Thus, fuel cell automobile growth needs hydrogen infrastructure with recharging stations (Kim, 2023).Public transportation, walking, and cycling may minimize vehicle industry pollution.South Korea should promote integrated and sustainable transportation to reduce traffic and pollution.Tax breaks, subsidies, and government incentives may increase eco-friendly automobile adoption (Estrada, 2023).End-of-life vehicle recycling and disposal reduce environmental impact.Recycle (Yi, 2023).
Promoting eco-friendly goods and processes in car manufacturing may significantly reduce the industry's environmental effects.(Kim S. T.-H., 2023).Environmental concerns need global collaboration.South Korea may work with other governments and organizations on emissions controls, sustainable manufacturing, and green technology (Park, 2023).The government, the automotive industry, research institutions, and environmental organizations must address these implementation issues.The policy must be regularly evaluated and amended to achieve environmental and sustainability objectives in the rapidly evolving vehicle industry (Thurbon, 2023).

China
The China National Automobile Policy tackles automotive sustainability and environmental issues (Ying, 2023).As laws and circumstances change, existing resources must be considered.The plan emphasizes electric vehicles (EVs) and charging infrastructure to boost EV sales and fulfill ambitious targets by 2023 (Peng, 2023).Conservation requires responsible battery recycling (Tang, 2023).China's growing industrialization and urbanization have caused air quality and pollution problems, especially in the automobile sector (Nyakuma, 2023).The policy should minimize internal combustion engine emissions and promote lowand zero-emission cars (Jiang, 2023).China might subsidize electric automobiles, hydrogen fuel cells, and green business research and development (Venkatraja, 2022).
Hydrogen fuel cell automobiles are a sustainable alternative to electric cars (Qian, 2023).Public transit and intelligent mobility alleviate congestion and pollution (Tan, 2023).Electric and green car owners get subsidies, tax refunds, and registration perks (Song, 2023).Environment-friendly car recycling and disposal should be rewarded (Li, 2014).Car manufacturers may also lessen their environmental effects by using eco-friendly materials and sustainable production practices (Wang, 2023).China can work with other countries on pollution management, sustainable manufacturing, and green technology to solve environmental challenges (Sheng, 2023).Policy execution requires strict environmental law enforcement.Governments, corporations, research institutes, and environmental organizations must collaborate to meet car sustainability goals and adjust policies (Liu, 2015).

India
Environmental and sustainability measures have targeted India's automobile industry (Singh, 2023).India's National Automotive Policy has environmental and sustainability concerns.The government's promoting electric vehicles (EVs) hinders India's automotive policy's environmental sustainability-government-targeted EV sales.Creating a reliable charging infrastructure, improving battery technology, and gaining public acceptance owing to high up-front prices and range anxiety will make the shift difficult (Ratra, 2023).Electric car growth requires adequate charging infrastructure.India's vehicle strategy should encourage private investment in cities and roadside charging stations (Sharma, 2022).Like other nations, India must address the environmental effects of battery production, recycling, and disposal.The policy should promote battery recycling and sustainable battery technology research (Asokan, 2023).India's automotive industry, which pollutes and generates greenhouse gases, should adopt cleaner vehicle technology, tight emissions laws, and internal combustion engine emission reductions (Digalwar, 2022).
Green technologies and sustainable automobile development are crucial.The Indian government may support electric cars, hydrogen fuel cells, and eco-friendly company R&D (Vapiwala, 2023).Electric and other eco-friendly automobile owners may get subsidies, tax rebates, and other financial incentives; thus, India's policy should encourage public transit and sustainable mobility (Singh et al., 2023).Recycling and discarding old cars lessen pollution.Recycle, reward.Sustainable automobile manufacturing may lessen environmental impacts.India requires green supply chains and manufacturing (Sureshkumar, 2023).Sustainable mobility and the automobile industry's environmental implications must be taught.The policy may educate people about eco-friendly driving and autos.Environmentalism necessitates worldwide cooperation (Chawla, 2023).India can collaborate on green manufacturing, environmental legislation, and technology.The government, the auto industry, academia, and environmental organizations must address these implementation issues.The ever-evolving car industry in India needs a legislative review and reform to achieve environmental and sustainability goals ( de Xavier, 2023) due to the rapid pace of change in the industry.

European Union (EU)
EU legislation aims to green the car industry (Rukanova, 2023).EU regulations are comprehensive, although European nations have their own (Rukanova, 2023).Europe's National Automotive Policy may face environmental and sustainability challenges (Ryner, 2023).Vehicles now meet or exceed stringent emission standards, reducing emissions of harmful gases and air pollutants.Maintaining these standards in Europe's diversified automobile sector takes much work.Several European countries are promoting EVs to minimize fossil fuel use (Corradi, 2023).Chargers, batteries, and user acceptability hinder EV adoption (Foley, 2010).Electric automobiles need ubiquitous charging.To provide dependable charging, countries, and communities must collaborate.To develop battery technology and recycling, battery manufacture, recycling, and disposal must be ecologically benign (Foley, 2010).Recycled batteries cut electric vehicle pollution.
Public transit, cycling, and walking may minimize traffic and pollution.Urban mobility requires better public transportation and bike-sharing (Attias, 2017).Subsidies may boost eco-car usage.Harmonizing European reward schemes is time-consuming (Rukanova et al., 2023).Efficient end-of-life vehicle recycling and disposal reduces waste and environmental damage.Localize recycling.Intelligent Transport Systems and Connected Vehicles increase traffic, pollution, and efficiency (Pichler, 2021).Green Production Sustainable automotive manufacture and materials may lessen environmental effects.Green technologies, alternative fuels, and environmentally friendly cars need R&D (Yilmaz, 2017).European environmental concerns need international collaboration, coordination, and policy alignment.Best practices may be shared internationally.Green car adoption involves customer awareness and education (Rezvani, 2015).Europe's diversified automotive sector and economic growth make a National Automotive Policy difficult.The EU, governments, manufacturers, research institutes, environmental groups, and others must work together to green the vehicle industry.

USA
The sustainability and environmental measures within the car sector in the United States have been discussed by (Wells, 2017).The following implementation challenges may affect the US auto industry's environment and sustainability (Mayyas, 2019).Cars need strict fuel efficiency requirements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve fuel economy.Administration-to-administration legal changes may impact producers and consumers.Environment-friendly electric vehicle adoption must be accelerated (Li et al., 2019).EV adoption requires overcoming charging infrastructure, battery technology, and customer acceptability.Electric vehicle adoption requires charging infrastructure, but state-local cooperation is challenging (Nicholas, 2019).
Battery manufacture, recycling, and disposal must consider environmental consequences.Eco-friendly battery recycling and research are crucial.Green technologies, transportation, and R&D are essential (Ghosh, 2020).Government funding may encourage electric cars, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and eco-friendly enterprises.Subsidies and incentives may boost electric and eco-friendly car sales-state-specific, time-varying incentives (Barwick, 2023).Automotive and environmental regulation changes between administrations may affect firms' long-term planning and investments in sustainable technology.
Public transit, carpooling, and alternate mobility may alleviate congestion and pollution.Green transportation requires sustainable urban mobility infrastructure.Car recycling and disposal reduces pollution.Recycle, reward.Intelligent Transport Systems and Connected Vehicles increase traffic, pollution, and efficiency (Lazarus, 2023).Greener production and renewable resources may lessen the car sector's environmental impact.Green car adoption involves customer education.Federal, state, and automotive manufacturers, research institutes, environmental groups, and other stakeholders must work to address these implementation challenges (Javadnejad, 2023).Greening the US automotive industry requires a consistent National Automobile Policy that supports long-term sustainability objectives.
The National Automotive Policy on sustainability issues faced by Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, EC, and USA.
The sustainability issues in the car industries of Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the USA have been addressed through various policies.However, it is essential to note that these policies may have changed since the latest news and government sources need to be consulted for up-to-date information.
The National Automotive Policy (NAP) promotes developing and utilizing Energy-Efficient Vehicles (EEV) in Malaysia.Hybrid and electric automobiles are encouraged to reduce carbon emissions and fossil fuel use.The policy also emphasizes research into greener car technologies.Japan has been actively working on sustainability in its car industry.The Japanese government and manufacturers have heavily invested in Research and Development (R&D) to improve fuel economy, reduce emissions, and promote electric and hybrid cars.They also advocate the use of energy-efficient fuels and lightweight materials.Manufacturers focus on electric and hydrogen-powered cars in South Korea, and the government supports eco-friendly cars and automotive technology R&D.China, the world's largest auto market, faces significant sustainability challenges due to rapid vehicle ownership and urbanization.China has set ambitious goals for Electric Vehicle (EV) adoption to combat air pollution and carbon emissions and has been promoting battery and charging technology.Air pollution and energy usage issues have also plagued India's car sector.The Indian government has set targets for electric vehicle adoption and offers financial incentives to encourage people to buy them.
The European Commission has been actively addressing environmental issues in the automotive sector across its member states.The implementation of Euro 6 emissions standards has been successful in reducing car greenhouse gas emissions.The EC also promotes electric car charging infrastructure and clean vehicle development.In the USA, automakers have faced sustainability challenges.Restrictions on fuel economy and emissions are enforced by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Additionally, state rules encourage the adoption of electric automobiles.Each country has its own National Automotive Policy and sustainability measures to address environmental challenges in the automotive sector.Government policies and actions are crucial in providing the latest data and shaping the industry's future direction.Referring to the latest news and government sources is essential for the most current information.

Framework cOmparison 1-The comparison of the sustainable development goals, objectives, and strategies of
Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, EC and USA NAP.
Comparison of the sustainable development goals (SDGs), objectives, and strategies of Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the United States (USA) automotive policies.However, specific policies might have evolved or changed since then.It is best to refer to official government sources and up-to-date reports for the latest information.While all these nations share sustainable development goals, their economic, technical, and environmental environments may affect their aims and policies.These nations adapt their policies to solve automobile sector difficulties as sustainability remains a worldwide issue.Refer to each country's policies and activities for the latest information.These countries have made commendable efforts to promote sustainable automobile growth through their respective NAPs.Their best practices and lessons learned can serve as valuable references for other nations seeking to develop comprehensive and effective policies to address sustainability challenges in the automotive industry.However, continuous evaluation and improvement of these policies are essential to meet the ever-evolving needs of sustainable transportation.

2-The assessment of
3-The evaluation of Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, EC and USA NAPs sustainable automobile policy implementation issues.
Evaluating the implementation issues of the National Automotive Policies (NAPs) for sustainable automobile growth in Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the United States (USA) reveals various challenges and opportunities for improvement.Here are some standard implementation issues observed across these countries

Malaysia
-Limited Charging Infrastructure: Malaysia needs help expanding the charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (EVs), which can hinder the widespread adoption of electric mobility.-Slow Transition: Despite the NAP's focus on energy-efficient vehicles, transitioning to cleaner technologies might face resistance due to consumer preferences for conventional vehicles.Japan: -High Costs: The high cost of advanced automotive technologies, such as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, poses challenges to widespread adoption.-Infrastructure Development: Ensuring sufficient hydrogen refueling stations and charging infrastructure for EVs remains a hurdle in some regions.Korea: -Infrastructure and Range Anxiety: Although Korea promotes electric and hydrogen vehicles, developing a comprehensive charging and refueling infrastructure is essential to alleviate range anxiety and encourage adoption.-Cost Barriers: The higher cost of eco-friendly vehicles than conventional counterparts can deter potential buyers.

China:
-Battery Supply Chain: The supply chain for essential battery components like lithium and cobalt has been a source of worry due to China's dominance in the EV industry.-EV Market Saturation: As the largest EV market globally, managing the demand and ensuring sustainable growth poses challenges for the Chinese automotive industry.India: -Charging Infrastructure: Insufficient EV charging infrastructure remains a significant barrier to EV adoption, especially in smaller cities and rural areas.-Awareness and Education: The general public may need more awareness and knowledge about EVs, impacting their acceptance and adoption.European Commission (EC): -Inconsistent Regulations: Harmonizing regulations and standards across EU member states can be challenging, leading to variations in implementation.-Market Fragmentation: Differences in national incentives and subsidies may lead to market fragmentation and disparities in EV adoption rates.United States (USA): -Policy Uncertainty: Changes in government priorities and policies can create uncertainty for automakers and investors, impacting long-term planning and investments.-Interstate Variation: Variations in state-level policies and incentives can lead to uneven growth in EV adoption across the country.
Opportunities for Improvement i. Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing: These countries can benefit from sharing best practices and lessons learned to accelerate the implementation of sustainable automobile policies.ii.Investment in Infrastructure: Governments can allocate resources to develop robust charging and refueling infrastructure to support the transition to electric and hydrogen vehicles.iii.Incentives and Support: Enhanced financial incentives and support for manufacturers and consumers can stimulate sustainable vehicle adoption.iv.Research and Development: Continued investment in research and development will drive technological advancements and reduce the costs of sustainable automotive technologies.
Addressing the implementation issues and leveraging opportunities will be crucial for these countries to achieve sustainable development goals in the automotive sector.The everchanging global landscape and technological advancements will heavily influence the future of sustainable transportation.

Shortages and weaknesses of current NAPs
The following are some common shortages and weaknesses in the implementation of the National Automotive Policies (NAPs) for sustainable automobile growth in Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the United States (USA): In certain regions, the availability of public charging infrastructure might need to be improved, affecting EV adoption rates.

Country
These shortfalls demonstrate the need to tackle fundamental issues to deploy NAPs successfully and sustainably.Improved areas include charging infrastructure, consumer awareness, technical developments, and regulatory support for sustainable transportation alternatives.NAPs must be evaluated and updated often to react to changing market conditions and vehicle technology.Governments, companies, and stakeholders must work together to fix these deficiencies.To meet NAP sustainability objectives, charging infrastructure, public awareness, regulatory simplification, and technology must be improved.Monitoring, evaluating, and updating rules will help the automobile sector manage novel challenges and seize new possibilities.

Findings
The findings shed light on the efforts made by these countries to foster sustainable development within their automotive sectors.Each country's policies are tailored to suit its unique economic, technical, and environmental background, with a strong focus on achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).These goals encompass promoting affordable and renewable energy sources, driving industrial innovation, creating sustainable cities, and taking decisive climate action.The study suggests several vital strategies to support sustainable development in the automotive industry.Firstly, there is a recommendation to accelerate the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles, encouraging cleaner and more ecofriendly transportation options.
Secondly, substantial investments in research and development of cleaner technologies are crucial to advance sustainable practices within the automotive sector.Additionally, expanding charging infrastructure is essential to facilitate the broader adoption of electric vehicles.Tighter emissions and fuel efficiency requirements also significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate automobile pollution.
However, the study identifies particular challenges in implementing these policies, such as limited charging infrastructure, the high cost of sustainable technology, and inconsistencies in legislation.Continuous evaluation, flexibility, and international cooperation are emphasized to address global sustainability concerns as the automobile industry evolves.Promoting public awareness, embracing circular economy principles, and fostering publicprivate partnerships can expedite the implementation of sustainable automobile policies.

Conclusion
The research underlines the critical importance of sustainable automobile policies in achieving global environmental, energy, and green mobility objectives.Collaboration among governments, industry stakeholders, and the general public is crucial for developing a more sustainable and resilient automotive sector.Policymakers are encouraged to be proactive, agile, and innovative in tackling technological and environmental challenges to ensure a thriving industry and a sustainable planet.

Suggestions
The following proposals and recommendations may be taken into account to enhance the present National Automotive Policies (NAPs) and solve the shortfalls in implementing sustainable car policy in Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the United States (USA).1. Enhance Charging Infrastructure: Invest in developing robust and widespread charging infrastructure for electric vehicles.This will help alleviate range anxiety and encourage consumers to adopt electric mobility.2. Financial Incentives and Support: Provide attractive financial incentives and subsidies for purchasing sustainable vehicles to bridge the price gap between conventional and sustainable options.These incentives can include tax credits, reduced registration fees, and financial assistance for research and development.3. Public Awareness and Education: Promote sustainable cars' environmental and economic advantages via public awareness initiatives.Raising awareness can increase demand and acceptance of eco-friendly mobility solutions.4. Research and Development: Increase investments in research and development for advanced automotive technologies, including battery technology, fuel cells, and lightweight materials.This will lead to technological advancements and cost reduction for sustainable vehicles.5. Strengthen International Collaboration: Facilitate international collaboration and knowledge exchange among countries to share best practices and experiences in sustainable automobile policy implementation.This can accelerate progress and help overcome common challenges.
6. Harmonize Regulations: Work towards harmonizing regulations and standards across regions or states within countries.Consistent policies will create a level playing field and foster a more unified and efficient market for sustainable vehicles.7. Support Local Manufacturing: Provide support and incentives for local manufacturing of sustainable vehicle components, batteries, and charging infrastructure.This will boost the domestic industry and reduce dependence on imports.8. Circular Economy and Recycling: Implement policies to promote the recycling and proper disposal of batteries and other vehicle components.This will address environmental concerns associated with battery waste and encourage a circular economy approach.9. Public-Private Partnerships: Encourage public-private partnerships to address sustainable automobile implementation challenges collaboratively.This can leverage the strengths of both sectors and foster innovation and investment.10.Long-Term Policy Stability: Ensure long-term policy stability and continuity to provide certainty and confidence to automakers, investors, and consumers.Consistent and predictable policies will foster a conducive environment for sustainable automotive growth.11.Focus on Smart Mobility Solutions: Emphasize the development of intelligent mobility solutions, such as connected and autonomous vehicles, to optimize transportation efficiency and reduce environmental impact.
By adopting these suggestions and recommendations, countries can strengthen their NAPs and accelerate the implementation of sustainable automobile policies.Creating a greener, more sustainable automotive future requires collaborative efforts, innovation, and a long-term commitment.

Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, EC and USA NAP that encourage sustainable automobile growth and highlight best practices and lessons learned.
Assessing the National Automotive Policies (NAPs) of Malaysia, Japan, Korea, China, India, the European Commission (EC), and the United States (USA) that encourage sustainable automobile growth reveals various best practices and lessons learned.Here is an overview of their strengths and areas of improvement