The Effectiveness of Enlightening Parenting Training Module in Improving Parenting Self-Efficacy and Reducing the Potential for Child Maltreatment

Child maltreatment is a significant social issue that can have long-lasting adverse effects on a child's physical, emotional, and psychological development. Parent need confidence in their parenting abilities, which can lead to healthier parent-child relationships. Parental self-efficacy influenced Child maltreatment. Child maltreatment is low if the individual's parental self-efficacy is high. The research is intended to investigate the effectiveness of Enlightening Parenting (EP) Training to improve parenting self-efficacy and reduce the potential for child maltreatment in Indonesia. Sixty mothers were selected through the sampling method and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. The parenting self-efficacy was measured by Tool (TOPSE – Tool of Parenting Self-Efficacy) to measure Parenting Self-Efficacy. Pre-test and post-test were held to examine the effect of EP Training Module on the dependent variable, parenting self-efficacy, and the attitude toward child maltreatment. The results showed a significant difference between the mean score of the pre and post-test of the experiment group. The multivariate test showed a significant difference between the experiment group and the control group (p<.01). As such, it is concluded that EP Training effectively improves parenting self-efficacy and reduces the potential of child maltreatment. This can be a valuable resource for professionals working with families and policymakers seeking effective strategies to address parenting self-efficacy and prevent child maltreatment.


INTRODUCTION
Child maltreatment is an issue that continues to be a concern worldwide.According to WHO 2020(World Health Organization, 2020) Global Status Report to Prevent Violence Against Children, more than 1 billion children between the ages of 2 and 17 are subjected to maltreatment on some level every year.The Indonesian Child Protection Commission believes that the phenomenon of child maltreatment in Indonesia is like a tip of an iceberg, because it is challenging to obtain a verifiable and legitimate information of children maltreatment.There are at least two main reasons why legitimate information about child maltreatment is difficult to be collected.First, incidents of child maltreatment are most likely not reported.Children who are victims of maltreatment do not have the ability to report maltreatment themselves, and others do not dare to report maltreatment in their environment.Second, the victim's parents may feel scared, embarrassed, or lack of confidence to report incidents of maltreatment committed by others.The likelihood of not reporting maltreatment might be even greater if the maltreatment occurred at home by their own parent or other family member.
Preventing of child maltreatment is very important because it contributes to physical and emotional problem (Brim, 2019), brain development (De Bellis & Kuchibhatla, 2006), relationship and problem with trust in the future (Kim & Cicchetti, 2010).Increasing parenting self-efficacy can help a parent to overcome abusive behaviours and improve their relationship with their children.Parents with adequate parenting self-efficacy are more likely to seek out information and resources to improve their parenting skills, able to manage stress and regulate their emotions, engage in positive parenting practices, such as providing emotional support and setting appropriate boundaries and have greater willingness to make positive changes to their behaviours (Betley, G., & Zamir, 2022).Self-efficacy in parenting is very important in giving confidence to parents that they can practice effective parenting when faced with challenges in influencing child behaviour and environment in the process of development and success (Dumka, Gonzales, Wheeler, & Millsap, 2010).Self-efficacy is a guide for parents in implementing effective parenting practices so that the interventions place more emphasis on strategies that can improve the effectiveness of parenting.Parents who feel competent in carrying out their role of influencing children's success in aspects of academic and social psychology feel satisfied with their parenting abilities (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).
Perceived self-efficacy is an individual's belief that they can change risky behaviours due to their actions.General Self -efficacy refers to a person's confidence in their ability to succeed in general, while specific efficacy refers to their confidence in their ability to succeed in a particular task or challenge.Intention and the ability to engage in healthy and positive behaviours have been positively associated with a person's self-efficacy (Conner, M., & Norman, 2006).
Some of the factors that cause abusive behaviour in parents are; 1).Low parenting skills which include the ability to communicate and solve problems, 2).Have limited knowledge on the behavioural choices to manage the children's behaviour and excessively uses an ineffective punitive approach, 3).Have difficulty in managing emotions and empathizes with their children, 4).Prioritise their own needs rather than the child's needs, and 5).Assigning meaning and unfavourable stereotypes to the purpose of a child's actions (Rodriguez & Green, 1997).While Azar (1986) stated that there are four things that contribute to parental maltreatment of children, namely, 1).Lack of self-control, 2).Low level of communication skills and problem-solving skills, 3).Inability to see the point of view of the child's perspective, 4).Misinterpretation of the child's intentions.The development of the Enlightening Parenting module was carried out in a separate study based on 9 factors that are the combination of the above findings of Rodriquez, Green and Azhar.The development of the EP module has met the requirements of module development for validity, reliability, and feasibility.This article focuses only on reporting the results of the effectiveness of EP module to increase parenting self-efficacy and reduce the potential to commit child maltreatment.

Method
This study uses pre-test and post-test experimental forms to examine the effect of the independent variable (the Enlightening Parenting Training Module), on the dependent variable (self-efficacy and the attitude towards child maltreatment).The study subjects were divided into two groups, namely the experimental group and the control group.The experimental group consisted of study subjects who received a parenting module intervention.The control group was not given any intervention (Neuman & Dickinson, 2003).
The design of the study can be seen in the following figure.The statistical analysis above qualifies the total 60 respondents used in this study.There were two questionnaires used in this study.The first is the Parenting Self-Efficacy questionnaire measured with TOPSE (Tool of Parenting Self-Efficacy) (Kendall & Bloomfield, 2005).According to Kendall and Bloomfield the self-efficacy of parenting covers eight main domains, namely, 1).Emotion and affection, 2).Play and enjoyment, 3).Empathy and understanding, 4).Control, 5).Discipline and boundary setting, 6).Pressures of parenting, 7).Self-acceptance, and 8).Knowledge/insight.
Each domain consists of 6 statement sentences, so in total, there are 48 statements.The assessment used a Likert scale, with a score of 0-10, where 0 means strongly disagree, and 10 is strongly agreed.The use of this self-efficacy questionnaire has obtained public approval from Kendall and Bloomfield via their official website www.topse.org.uk.The questionnaire has been translated into Indonesian language by several previous researchers (Hayati & Febriani, 2019;Respatyani, 2017).However, the researcher again conducted internal validity tests on seven experts in the field of psychology and language.
The second questionnaire is attitude towards child maltreatment questionnaire developed by the researcher.It consists of 21 statements using 7 Likert scale, with a score of 1-7.There is a significant relationship between attitudes toward child abuse and abusive behaviour (Ashton, 2001;Jackson et al., 1999).Since the attitude is an important factor in predicting and controlling behaviour, then the change of attitude has a great importance in the prevention of the events.TOPSE and Attitude toward child maltreatment content validity evaluation was done by subject matters experts (SME) based on 5 (five) answer ranges.Answer 1 is for a very inappropriate statement, up to 5 for a very appropriate statement.Scores from experts were tested to obtain a coefficient of V per statement.This coefficient of V is compared with the standard coefficient of V Aiken.According to the SME evaluation, 48 statements of TOPSE and 19 statements of Attitude toward child maltreatment questionnaire are valid.
A pilot study was also conducted on 202 respondents to measure the validity of the item and its reliability.Based on the analysis using SPSS version 25.0, it was found that 47 items of TOPSE met the standard and 1 item dropped.A total of 47 TOPSE valid statements can measure the construct of Parenting Self-Efficacy.The validity value found was greater than r table = 0.148 (N = 184, confidence level p <0.05), ranging from .148 to .818.Similarly, the validity value of Attitude toward child maltreatment questionnaire ranges from .183 to .619.Comparably with TOPSE, the attitude towards child maltreatment questionnaire also has very high reliability in measuring the attitude towards child maltreatment with the Cronbach's Alpha score of 0.857.
This research has received ethical clearance from the National University of Malaysia.The ethical clearance reference number is UKM PPI/111/JEP-2021-797.

Result and Discussion
In this study we examined how Enlightening Parenting Training affected parenting self-efficacy and the attitude towards child maltreatment.The demographic data of the subject is as follow: Table 1 The majority of subjects aged 31 to 40 years (48.33%),followed by those aged between 20 and 30 (41.67%) and those aged 41 to 50 years old (10%).For Group Experiment study subjects, the majority of those aged 31 to 40 (50%), followed by those aged 20 to 30 years old (46.67%) and those aged 41 to 50 years (3.33%).While for Control subjects, the majority of those aged 31 to 40 were 14 (46.67%),followed by those aged 20 to 30 years old with 11 people (36.67 %) and those aged 41 to 50 years old with 5 (16.67%).The level of education of the majority subjects is Bachelor degree, followed by master program, diploma and high school.Homogeneity tests were carried out in the Experiment group and the control group on parenting self-efficacy and attitude toward child abuse scores.From the homogeneity test between the experiment group and the Control group, p > 0.05 was obtained on both variables, meaning that there was no significant difference between the scores of the experiment group and the control group, thus these two groups were considered homogeneous.Independent sample T-test was conducted to test both dependent variables score before training.The result of pre-test for both variables are as follow: -0.668 58 0.507 The p-value of both Groups is above 0.05.Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between Parenting Self Efficacy and Attitude Toward Child Abuse between the two Groups before the training.
The T-test was also used to test the differences between mean scores of pre-test and post-test for both variables of experiment group and the result is as follow: The results of the Manova Test showed that there was a very significant difference of Parenting Self-efficacy, as well as attitude toward child maltreatment scores between the experimental group who had undergone training and a control group that did not receive training.

Conclusion
The research demonstrates that Enlightening Parenting Training contribute to a higher parental self-efficacy and reducing the potential of doing child maltreatment.Parents who acquire proper parenting knowledge and skills in the right way will have a better understanding and sufficient skills to have various strategies to respond to the children's behaviour without having to do maltreatment.Further research over a longer period and with larger samples is recommended to provide evidence of the impact for parents in Indonesia.
This can be a useful tool for professionals dealing with families and for politicians looking for practical solutions to deal with parenting efficacy and stop child abuse.Effective training modules can help reduce the risk of child maltreatment, thereby improving the safety and well-being of children in families participating in the program.Policymakers and program developers can use the study's results to inform the development of parenting programs and policies to prevent child maltreatment.This research outcome can include recommendations for integrating practical training modules into existing family support services.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Pre-test Post-test Control Group DesignMen and women differ in expressing emotions influenced by physiological, biological and social factors, hence the subject of this study are only for mother to avoid any bias in the experiment(Brody, 2022;Cahill, 2006).A total of 60 respondents were randomly selected and divided into two groups to get two equivalent groups.The size of the sample was determined by G*Power Analysis Program(El Maniani, Rechchach, El Mahfoudi, El Moudane, & Sabbar, 2016) taking into account the Medium effect size, f (V) = 0.25(Cohen 1977(Cohen  , 1988)), α = 0.05.and power = 0.95; number of groups = 2, response variables = 2, with MANOVA.Global effects (F-test) found that Delta = 16.50,Critical F = 3.14, which gives the total sample size required of 66 people.Alternatively, if use large effect size, f (V) = 0.40(Cohen 1977(Cohen  , 1988)), α = 0.05, and power = 0.95; number of groups = 2, response variables = 2 with MANOVA, Global effects (F-test) found that Delta = 16.80,Critical F = 3.24, with total sample size required of 42 people.The statistical analysis above qualifies the total 60 respondents used in this study.There were two questionnaires used in this study.The first is the Parenting Self-Efficacy questionnaire measured with TOPSE (Tool of Parenting Self-Efficacy)(Kendall & Bloomfield, 2005).According to Kendall and Bloomfield the self-efficacy of parenting covers eight main domains, namely, 1).Emotion and affection, 2).Play and enjoyment, 3).Empathy and understanding, 4).Control, 5).Discipline and boundary setting, 6).Pressures of parenting, 7).Self-acceptance, and 8).Knowledge/insight.Each domain consists of 6 statement sentences, so in total, there are 48 statements.The assessment used a Likert scale, with a score of 0-10, where 0 means strongly disagree, and 10 is strongly agreed.The use of this self-efficacy questionnaire has obtained public . Descriptive Analysis of the Study Subject

Table 2 .
Pre-test Score of Experimental and Control group

Table 3 .
Mean Scores of Pre-test and Post-test for Both Variables of Experiment Group It concluded that there is a very significant difference (p<.01) in Parenting Self Efficacy and Attitude Toward Child Abuse of experiment group before and after getting the exercise.Image 1. Mean of Experiment Group's Parenting Self-Efficacy, before and after training Image 1. Mean of Experiment Group's Attitude Toward Child Maltreatment, before and after training

Table 4 .
The Test Results of The Manova Test