ISSN: 2222-6990
Open access
This paper examines the construction and evolution of Chinese beliefs in ghosts and deities within the framework of the integration of the Three Teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism). By analyzing historical texts, religious doctrines, and literary works such as The Investiture of the Gods, it traces how these beliefs transitioned from early animistic practices to a systematized spiritual framework. The study highlights Confucianism’s humanistic reorientation of supernatural veneration, Daoism’s philosophical deification of cosmic principles, and Buddhism’s structural influence on concepts of hell and karma. It argues that the synthesis of the Three Teachings created a uniquely Chinese belief system characterized by fluid boundaries between humans and deities, where mortals could ascend to divinity through virtue or service. This syncretism not only shaped religious practices but also reinforced cultural identity during periods of social upheaval, as evidenced in Yuan-Ming Zaju dramas and popular literature.
Anonymous. (1988). Santian neijie jingjuan [??????]. In Dao zang (Vol. 28) [Taoist Canon (Vol. 28)]. Beijing, China: Wenwu Press; Shanghai, China: Shanghai Bookstore; Tianjin, China: Tianjin Ancient Books Publishing House.
Bell, C. M. (2002). "The Chinese believe in spirits": Belief and believing in the study of religion. In N. K. Frankenberry (Ed.), Radical interpretation in religion (pp. 100–116). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Chang, Y. Z. (2010). Religion and ritual practices in the Shang Dynasty [??????]. Beijing, China: China Social Sciences Press.
Chen, L. (Ed.). (1994). Baihutong shuzheng [?????]. Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company. (Original work compiled during the Qing Dynasty).
Legge, J. (1885). The sacred books of China, the texts of Confucianism. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Hu, H. X., & Hu, Z. Y. (2003). The Shang Dynasty: Archaeology and History [???]. Shanghai People's Publishing House.
Li, Y. G. (2003). Divine Empyrean Thunder Rituals: History and philosophy of the Shenxiao Daoist school [???????????????]. Chengdu, China: Sichuan People’s Publishing House.
Li, Y. G. (Ed.). (2022). A history of the Daoist pantheon in China (Vol. 1) [?????????]. Chengdu, China: Sichuan University Press.
Lou, Y. L. (Ed.). (2011). Annotation on Laozi's Dao De Jing [??????] (Wang, B. Annotator). Beijing, China:Zhonghua Book Company.
Liu, Y. Y. (2011). An interpretation of The Investiture of the Gods from the perspective of religious culture [Zongjiao wenhua shiye xia dui FengshenYanyi de jiedu?????????????????]. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology (Social Sciences Edition) [Harbin Gongye Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban)], 103-109.
Mencius[??]. (2011). Mencius [??](I. Bloom, Trans.; P. J. Ivanhoe, Ed.). New York : Columbia University Press. (Original work published 2009)
Pu, W. Q. (2021). The evolutionary path of Chinese views on hell [???????????]. World Religious Cultures, 10-17.
Qing, X. T. (Ed.). (1996). History of Chinese Taoism [?????]. (Revised ed., Vol. 1). Chengdu, China: Sichuan People's Publishing House.
Ruan, Y. [??] (Ed.). (1980). Annotations on the Thirteen Classics [?????] . Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company. (Original work compiled during the Qing Dynasty).
Rao, Z. Y. (1991). Collation and Commentary on the Xiang'er Annotation of Laozi [???????]. Shanghai, China: Shanghai ancient books publishing house.
Wang, H. Y. (2017). The origin of the Taoist thirty-six heavens theory[??????]. Rudao Yanjiu, 73–89.
Xie, J. L. (2014). An analysis of the religious theological system in The Investiture of the Gods [???????????????]. Laozi Studies (Vol. 5) [Laozi Xuekan (Vol. 5)], 197–209.
Xun, K. (2005). Annotations on Xunzi [????] (T. H. Wang, Ed.). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Ancient Books Press. (Original work published Warring States Period).
Yang, B. J. (Trans. & Ed.). (2015). The Analects: Translation and Commentary [????]. Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company.
Zhang, H. M. (2014). The evolution of Emperor worship in ancient China[???????????]. Putuo Xuekan, 183–201.
Zuo, Q. M. (2015). Discourses of the states [??] (Z. Wei, Commentary). Shanghai, China: Shanghai Ancient Books Press. (Original work published Warring States Period).
Yi, W., Hiong, S. W., & Bee, L. C. (2025). The Construction and Characteristics of Chinese Beliefs in Ghosts and Deities within the Context of the Integration of the Three Teachings. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 15(3), 141–153.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by HRMARS (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode