ISSN: 2222-6990
Open access
Cyberbullying reflected as one of social problems in Malaysia as the country ranked sixth among 28 countries and second in Asia on cyberbullying around the world. The detrimental effects of cyberbullying behavior on anxiety and self-esteem are well-established in the literature with the postulation that the higher is the level of cyberbullying experienced, the more negative is the effects. However, limited studies have examined its effects on both cyberbullies and cyber victims. Studies also showed that males are more involved in cyberbullying behavior with the greatest gender difference in Asian countries. Due to lack of researches, it is still unclear whether there is an interactions effects between levels of cyberbullying and gender on the anxiety and self-esteem of adolescents, particularly secondary school students. This study aims to fill the literature gaps by investigating the potential interactions effects between levels of cyberbullying and gender on secondary school students’ anxiety and self-esteem from cyberbullies and cyber victims’ perspectives. The samples consisted of 337 cyberbullies and 382 cyber victims. The results showed that there were no significant interaction effects between levels of cyberbullying or cyber victimization and gender on anxiety and self-esteem of both cyberbullies and cyber victims. However, there were main effects from these variables separately. Implications of the findings were discussed in this paper. The findings of this study can further assist in understanding more of the potential psychological vulnerability factors and consequences of cyberbullying, which could be used to optimize preventive measures and treatment.
Abaido, G. M. (2020). Cyberbullying on social media platforms among university students in United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Adolescence and Health, 25(1).
Almenayes, J. (2017) The Relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression: Moderating effects of gender and age. Social Networking, 6, 215-223.
Al-Hendawi, M. (2022). Self-esteem and behavioral problems of adolescents: the mediating role of school adjustment. Cypriot Journal of Educational Science, 17(11), 4246-4258.
Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M. & Markos, A. (2016). Development, construct validation and measurement invariance of the Greek cyberbullying/victimization experiences questionnaire (CBVEQ-G).Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 380-390.
Baier, D., Hong, J. S., Kliem, S., & Bergmann, M. C. (2019). Consequences of bullying on adolescents’mental health in Germany: Comparing face to face bullying andc yberbullying. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(9), 2347-2357.
Balakrishnan, V. (2015). Cyberbullying among youth adult in Malaysia: The roles of gender,age and Internet frequency. Computer in Human Behaviour, 46, 149-157.
Balakrishnan, V. & Gan C.L. (2018). Mobile Technology in the Classroom: What Drives Student-Lecturer Interactions? International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 34, 666-679.
Barlett, C. P. & Gentile, D. A. (2012). Attacking others online: The formation of cyberbullying in late adolescence. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1, 123-135.
Bashir, F., and Rehman, M. and Amin, A., and Shamim, A. and Hashmani, M. (2021). Cyberbullying Behaviour: A study of Undergraduate University Students. IEEE Access, 9, 15-34.
Beghin, H. (2020). The effects of cyberbullying on students and schools. Journal of Graduate Studies in Education, 12(2),19-22.
Bartolo, M. G., Palermiti, A. L., Servidio, R., Musso, P., & Costabile, A. (2019). Mediating processes in the relations of parental monitoring and school climate with cyberbullying: The role of moral disengagement. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 15(3), 568– 594.
Brack, K., & Caltabiano, N. (2014). Cyberbullying and self-esteem in Australian adults. Cyberpsychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 8(2),7.
Brewer, G., & Kerslake, J. (2015). Cyberbullying, self-esteem,empathy, and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 255-260.
Buelga, S., Postigo, J., Martínez-Ferrer, B., Cava, M. J., & Ortega-Barón, J. (2020). Cyberbullying among adolescents: Psychometric properties of the CYB-AGS Cyber-Aggressor Scale. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3090-2020.
Carvalho, M., Branquinho, C., & Matos, M. G. (2021). Cyberbullying and Bullying: Impact on psychological symptoms and well-being. Child Indicators Research, 14, 435-452.
Chao, C. M., & Yu, T. K. (2019). Associations among different internet access time, gender and cyberbullying behaviors in Taiwan’s adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1104.
Cuncic, A. (2021, January). The Psychology of Cyberbullying. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-psychology-of-cyberbullying-5086615.
Delgado, B., Escortell, R., Martínez-Monteagudo, M. C., Aparisi, D. (2019). School anxiety as an explanatory variable of syberbullying in Spanish students of primary education. Behaviour Psychology, 27, 239–255.
Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. New York: Basic books.
Felst, R., & Quandt, T. (2016). The role of online communication in long-term cyberbullying involvement among girls and boys. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 1931-1945.
Field, T. (2018). Cyberbullying: A narrative review. Journal of Addiction Therapy and Research, 2, 010-027.
Foody, M., McGuire, L., Kuldas, S., & O' Higgins Norman, J. (2019). Friendship quality and gender differences in association with cyberbullying involvement and psychological well-being. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 1723.
Gohal, G.., Ahmad A., Ebtihal, E., & Ahmed, R. (2023). Prevalence and related risks of cyberbullying and its effects on adolescent. BMC Psychiatry, 23(39),1-10.
Gourdon, S. (2021, April). The Real Life Effects of Cyberbullying on Children. Retrieved from https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-are-the-effects-of-cyberbullying-460558.
Gigori, A. N., & Maftei, A. (2020). Exploring the mediating roles of state and trait anxiety on the relationship between middle adolescents’ cyberbullying and depression. Children, 7(11), 240.
Gunther, N., DeSmet, A., Jacob, N., & Ilse, D.B. (2016). Comparing associated harm with traditional bullying and cyberbullying: a narrative overview of mental, physical and behavioural negative outcomes. In Trijntje, V., Francine, D. & Connar, M. (Eds.). Cyberbullying. From theory to intervention (pp.54-81). Routledge.
Hao, L., Mao, W., Choo, M. C., Yi, W., Cui, Y. H., & Cai, Z. H. (2020). The relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying: A meta-analysis of children and youth students. Current Psychology, 39, 30–842
Hawkins, C. L. (2018). Young people's perceptions and management of cyberbullying in secondary schools: An exploratory study using a socio-ecological lens. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, UK.
Hase, C. N., Goldberg, S. B., Smith, D., Stuck, A., & Campain, J. (2015). Impacts of traditional bullying and cyberbullying on mental health of middle school and high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 52, 607-617.
Helfrich, E. L., Doty, J. L., Su, Y.-W., Yourell, J. L., & Gabrielli, J. (2020). Parental views on preventing and minimizing negative effects of cyberbullying. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105377.
Hendry, A., Gibson, S.P., Davies, C., McGillion, M. & Gonzalez-Gomez, N. (2022). Toward a dimensional model of risk and protective factors influencing children's early cognitive, social, and emotional development during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Official Journal of the International Society on Infant Studies, 28(1), 158-186.
Inchley, J., Currie, D., Budisavljevic, S., Torsheim, T., Jåstad, A., Cosma, A., Kelly, C., Arnarsson, A. M., & Samdal, O. (2020). Spotlight on adolescent health and well-being. Findings from the 2017/2018 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and Canada. International report (Volume 2). WHO Publications.
Jenaro, C., Flores, N. & Frias, C. P. (2021). Anxiety and depression in cyberbullied college students: A retrospective study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1-2), 579-602.
Kumar, V. L., & Goldstein, M. A. (2020). Cyberbullying and adolescents. Current Pediatrics Report, 8(1), 86-92.
Lee, Y., Harris, M. N., & Kim, J. (2022). Gender Differences in Cyberbullying Victimization:From a Developmental Perspective: An Examination of Risk and Protective Factors. Crime & Delinquency, 68(13-14), 2422–2451.
Leary, M. R. (1983). Social anxiousness: The construct and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 66-75.
Livazovic, G., & Ham, E. (2019). Cyberbullying and emotional distress in adolescents: The importance of family, peers and school. Heliyon, 5(6),1-9.
Mahanta, D. & Khatoniyar, S. (2019). Cyberbullying and its impact on mental health of adolescents. International Journal of Management and Social Science, 14(2), 1-10.
Martínez-Monteagudo, M. C., Delgado, B., Ingles, C. & Escortell, R. (2020). Cyberbullying and social anxiety: A latent class analysis among spanish adolescents. International Journal of Evironmental and Public Health, 17(406), 1-13.
Miller, S., Connolly, P., & Maguire, L. K. (2013). Well-being, academic buoyancy and educational achievement in primary school students. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 239-248.
Myers, C. A., & Cowie, H. (2017). Bullying at university: The social and legal contexts of cyberbullying among university students. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 48(8), 1172-1182.
Myklestad, I., & Straiton, M. (2021). The relationship between self-harm and bullying behaviour: results from a population based study of adolescents. BMC Public Health, 21(254), 1-15.
Naaz, K., & Dewan, R.(2022). Loneliness and suicidal ideation among under graduate cyberbullying victim students of Ranchi Town in Jharkhand. International Journal Of Novel Research And Development, 7(10), 793-801.
National Children’s Bureau (2016, February). Focus on: Cyberbullying. Retrieved from https://www.basw.co.uk/resources/focus-cyberbullying.
Navarro, R. (2016). Gender issues and cyberbullying in children and adolescents: From gender differences to gender identity measures. Cyberbullying Across the Globe, 35-61.
Nazari, T. (2020, December). Malaysia might make cyberbullying illegal soon, but are we ready? Retrieved from https://www.therakyatpost.com/news/malaysia/2020/12/09/malaysia-might-make-cy berbullying-illegal-soon-but-are-we-ready/
Newall, M. (2018,March). Cyberbullying: A global advisor survey. Retrieved from https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/201806/cyberbullying_june2018.pdf.
Nupur, C. & Mahapatro, M. (2016). Gender differences in self-esteem among young adults of Raipur, Uttar Pradesh, India. Austin Journal of Women’s Health, 3(1), 1018.
Palermiti, A. L., Servidio, R., Bartolo, M. G. & Costabile, A. (2016). Cyberbullying and self-esteem: An Italian study. Computer in Human Behaviour, 69, 136-141.
Palermiti, A. L., Servidio, R., Bartolo, M. G., Musso, P. & Costabile, A. (2022). Self-esteem and adolescent bullying/cyberbullying and victimization/ cybervictimization behaviours: Person-oriented approach. Europe Journal of Psychology, 18(3), 249-261.
Peled, Y. (2019). Cyberbullying and its influence on academic, social and emotional development of undergraduate students. Heliyon, 5, 2-24.
Piccoli, V., Carnaghi, A.,Grassi M.,Stragà, M. & Bianchi. M. (2024). Cyberbullying through the lens of social influence: Predicting cyberbullying perpetration from perceived peer-norm, cyberspac regulations and ingroup processes. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 260-273.
Reigner, V. R., Gasco, V. P., & Monaco, E. (2022). The influence of self-esteem and cyberbullying on adolescents’ well-being: a question of gender? Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niñosy Adolescentes, 9(1), 37-44
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Rodríguez-Domínguez, C., Pérez-Moreno, P. J., & Durán, M. (2020). Cyber dating violence: A review of its research methodology. Anales de Psicología/Annals of Psychology, 36(2), 200-209.
Romero-Reignier,V., Prado-Gascó,V. & Mónaco, E. (2022). The influence of self-esteem and (cyber)bullying on adolescents’ well-being: a question of gender? Revista de Psicología Clínicacon Niños y Adolescentes, 9(1), 37-44.
Ruiz, R. M. N. M. (2018). Curbing cyberbullying among students: A comparative analysis of existing laws among selected asian countries. International Journal of Social Sciences, 4(3), 1285-1305.
Sae-Koew, J., Gonsalkorale, K., & Cross, D. (August, 2024). Protecting Children and Adolescents from Cyberbullying: An Evidence Review of Risk and Protective Factors and Effective Interventions. Retrieved from https://www.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2024-08/protecting-children-and-adolescents-from-cyberbullying.pdf
Safaria, T., Tentama, F., & Suyono, H. (2016). Cyberbully, cybervictim, and forgiveness among Indonesian high school students. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 40-48.
Sasson, H., & Mesch, G. (2017). The role of parental mediation and peer norms on the likelihood of cyberbullying. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 178(1), 15-27.
Schoeler, T., Duncan, L., Cecil, C. M., Ploubidis, G. B., & Pingault, J. B. (2018). Quasi-experimental evidence on short-and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(12), 1229-1246.
Shin, N., & Ahn, H. (2015). Factors affecting adolescents’ involvement in cyberbullying: What divides the 20% from the 80%. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking, 18(7), 393-399.
Sincek, D., Duvnjak, I. & Milic, M. (2017). Psychological outcomes of cyber-violence of victims. Perpetrators and Perpetrators/Victims, 53(2), 98-110.
Smith, P. K., López-Castro, L., Robinson, S., & Görzig, A. (2019). Consistency of gender differences in bullying in cross-cultural surveys. Aggression and violent behavior, 45, 33–40.
Stark, L., Asghar, K., Seff, I., Cislaghi, B., Yu, G., Gessesse, T.T., Eoomkham, J., Baysa, A.A. & Falb, K. (2018). How gender- and violence-related norms affect self-esteem among adolescent refugee girls living in Ethiopia. Global Mental Health, 5, 1-9.
Sinthumule, D. A., & Ngonyama, T. T. (2022). Cyberbullying in Public Schools: Causes and Effects on Learner Academic Performance. Journal of Educational Studies, 21(4), 1-8.
Subasi, H. G. (2013). The validity and reliability of the interaction anxiousness scale: Gender and social status differences among Turkish adolescents. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(3), 262-269.
Sun, S., Fan, X., & Du, J. (2016). Cyberbullying perpetration: A meta-analysis of gender differences. International Journal of Internet Science, 11(1), 61-81.
Svendsen, C. A. (2024). Disconnected in a connected world: Gender differences in loneliness and the impact of technology (Master Degree Dissertation). Available from Selected Full-Text Master Theses 2021.
The Children’s Society U. K. & YoungMinds. (2018, February). Safety net: The impact of cyberbullying on children and young people’s mental health. Retrieved from https://www.basw.co.uk/resources/safety-net-cyberbullying%E2%80%99s-impact-young-people %E2%80%99s-mental-health.
Tomas, J. M., & Oliver, A. (1999). Rosenberg's self-esteem scale: Two factors or method effects. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 84-98.
Tommy, K. H. C., Christy, M. K. C., & Zach,W. Y. L. (2020). Cyberbullying on social networking sites: A literature review and future research directions. Information and Management, 58(2), 1-16
Vasanthi, R., Rathishesha, M., Vinodhini, V., Manivasagam, G., Sangeetha, M., & Hinduja, R. (2024). Impact of cyberbullying on women emotional health. Journal of Advanced Zoology,45(3), 686-693.
Verlarde, J. M., & Vasodavan, V. (2024). Dealing with Cyberbullying in International Schools in Malaysia: The Role of School Leaders. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Management, 12(2), 74-86
Watts, L. K., Wagner, J., Velasquez, B., & Behrens, P. I. (2017). Cyberbullying in higher education: A literature review. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 268-274
Xiao, B. S., & Wong, W. M. (2013). Cyberbullying among University Students: An empirical investigation from the social cognitive perspective. International Journal of Business and Information, 8(1), 34-69.
Yap, W. X. (2020, July ). Malaysia ranks 2nd in Asia for cyberbullying among youth. Retrieved from https://says.com/my/news/malaysia-ranks-2nd-in-asia-for-cyberbullying-among-children.
Yirci, R., Karakose, T. & Malkoc, N. (2021). Examining the influence of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among high school adolescents—associations with gender and grade level. International Journal of Educational Process, 10(4), 55-72.
Zhang, X., Han, Z., Ba, Z. (2020). Cyberbullying Involvement and Psychological Distress among Chinese Adolescents: The Moderating Effects of Family Cohesion and School Cohesion. International Journal of Environmental Reserach and Public Health, 17(23), 1-11.
Zhong, J. P., Zheng, Y. X., Huang, X. Y., Ma, D. X., Gong, J. X., Li, M. Y. & Huang, J. X. (2021). Study of the influencing factors of cyberbullying among chinese college students incorporated with digital citizenship: From the perspective of individual students. Frontier in Psychology,12, 1-16.
Yun, T. R., & Abdullah, M. N. L. Y. (2025). Effects of Cyberbullying Behavior on Malaysian Secondary School Students’ Anxiety and Self-Esteem: Do Levels of Cyberbullying and Gender Matter? International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 15(3), 1030–1048.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by HRMARS (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode