ISSN: 2226-6348
Open access
This study systematically reviews empirical research on Edwin Gordon’s Music Learning Theory (MLT) and associated music aptitude measures conducted between 2005 and 2025, particularly emphasizing contrasting international and Chinese research contexts. Gordon’s MLT, centered on audiation, has significantly influenced music pedagogy and aptitude assessment globally. However, the extent and rigor of empirical applications differ widely across cultural and educational systems. This review seeks to consolidate current evidence and illuminate how MLT’s utility has been examined, implemented, and interpreted internationally and in China. Following PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search across Scopus, ERIC, and CNKI yielded 38 empirical studies meeting inclusion criteria. Thematic synthesis revealed three dominant trends: (1) MLT-based interventions yield consistently positive outcomes in musical, cognitive, and affective domains; (2) international studies employ advanced psychometric analyses, while Chinese research remains largely in exploratory or theoretical stages; and (3) audiation aptitude shows strong interdisciplinary correlations, though such links are underexplored in China. This review highlights an urgent need to localize and empirically validate Gordon’s frameworks within Chinese education. It contributes to bridging the gap between theory and practice and offers implications for curriculum reform, teacher training, and cross-cultural educational research. The study is particularly beneficial for music educators, researchers, policymakers, and curriculum developers seeking evidence-based approaches to advance music aptitude development in diverse educational contexts.
Brodsky, W., Kessler, Y., Rubinstein, B. S., Ginsborg, J., & Henik, A. (2008). The mental representation of music notation: notational audiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(2), 427.
Brophy, T. S. (2005). A longitudinal study of selected characteristics of children's melodic improvisations. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(2), 120-133.
Burton, S. L. (2017). Making music mine: the development of rhythmic literacy. Music Education Research, 19(2), 133-142.
Çenberci, S., & Tufan, E. (2023). Effect of music education based on Edwin E. Gordon’s theory on children’s developmental music aptitude and social emotional learning skills. Music Education Research, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2023.2202360
Culp, M. E. (2017). The relationship between phonological awareness and music aptitude. Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(3), 328-346.
Degé, F., Patscheke, H., & Schwarzer, G. (2017). Associations between two measures of music aptitude: Are the IMMA and the AMMA significantly correlated in a sample of 9- to 13-year-old children? Musicae Scientiae, 21(4), 465–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864916670205
Esmergül, P., & Önder, V. B. (2022). Adaptation of Edwin Gordon's Primary and Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation Test to Turkish and Validity Reliability Study. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 21(1), 18-34.
Gübe?, N. Ö. (2021). Investigating Musical Aptitude Examination with a Many-Facet Rasch Model. Participatory Educational Research, 8(4), 334-345.
Hanson, J. (2019). Meta-analytic evidence of the criterion validity of Gordon’s music aptitude tests in published music education research. Journal of Research in Music Education, 67(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429419838386
Hornbach, C. M., & Taggart, C. C. (2005). The relationship between developmental tonal aptitude and singing achievement among kindergarten, first-, second-, and third-grade students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(4), 322-331.
Lowe, G., & Belcher, S. (2012). Direct instruction and music literacy: one approach to augmenting the diminishing?. Australian Journal of Music Education, (1), 3-13.
Lu, Y. T. (2023). Application and study of Edwin Gordon's audiation theory in music education for children aged 4-6 [Master’s thesis, East China Normal University]. CNKI.
Luo, P. N. (2022). Research on Gordon's MAP test and feasibility analysis of its theory integration into basic music courses [Master’s thesis, Southwest University]. CNKI.
Maerker Garner, A. (2009). Singing and moving: Teaching strategies for audiation in children. Music educators journal, 95(4), 46-50.
McCormack, B. A., Klopper, C., Kitson, L., & Westerveld, M. (2018). The potential for music to develop pronunciation in students with English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D). Australian Journal of Music Education, 52(1), 43-50.
McDonel, J. S. (2015). Exploring learning connections between music and mathematics in early childhood. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 17(1), Article 8.
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. bmj, 372.
Pan, S. S. (2019). Development and insights of 'Playing Music' classrooms in kindergartens. Preschool Education Research. Retrieved from CNKI.
Pan, S. S. (2020). Practical insights into the localization of Edwin Gordon's early childhood music learning theory in China. Early Childhood Education Research. Retrieved from CNKI.
Platz, F., Kopiez, R., Lehmann, A. C., & Wolf, A. (2022). Measuring audiation or tonal memory? Evaluation of the discriminant validity of Edwin E. Gordon’s “Advanced Measures of Music Audiation.” Psychology of Music, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356221086440
Pollatou, E., Karadimou, K., & Gerodimos, V. (2005). Gender differences in musical aptitude, rhythmic ability and motor performance in preschool children. Early child development and care, 175(4), 361-369.
Reifinger Jr, J. L. (2018). The relationship of pitch sight-singing skills with tonal discrimination, language reading skills, and academic ability in children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 66(1), 71-91.
Ruthsatz, J., Detterman, D., Griscom, W. S., & Cirullo, B. A. (2008). Becoming an expert in the musical domain: It takes more than just practice. Intelligence, 36(4), 330-338.
Sarkis-Onofre, R., Catalá-López, F., Aromataris, E., & Lockwood, C. (2021). How to properly use the PRISMA Statement. Systematic Reviews, 10, 1-3.
Selçuk, A. A. (2019). A guide for systematic reviews: PRISMA. Turkish archives of otorhinolaryngology, 57(1), 57.
Stamou, L., Schmidt, C. P., & Humphreys, J. T. (2010). Standardization of the gordon primary measures of music audiation in greece. Journal of Research in Music Education, 58(1), 75-89.
Verdis, A., & Sotiriou, C. (2018). The psychometric characteristics of the Advanced Measures of Music Audiation in a region with strong non-Western music tradition. International Journal of Music Education, 36(1), 69-84.
Wang, S. N. (2022). Classroom practice research on Edwin Gordon's Music Learning Theory in elementary music education: A case study of S Elementary School in T City. CNKI.
Wang, Y. H. (2023). Exploring the effects of using various designs of game-based materials on music learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(5), 2650-2664.
Yu, J. W. (2023). Influence of tonal graphic notation on musical development of senior kindergarten children: A case study of D Kindergarten in S City. CNKI.
Zhou, D. Y. (2021). Empirical research on Gordon's Music Aptitude Profile test in the Chinese context [Master’s thesis, Wenzhou University]. CNKI.
Gu, Y., & Koning, S. B. I. (2025). A Systematic Literature Review on Empirical Applications of Gordon’s Music Learning Theory and Aptitude Measures: Sino-International Perspectives (2005–2025). International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 14(2), 870–881.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by HRMARS (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode