Authorised Inversion: Reverse Mentoring for Teachers Digital Competence in Chinese Schools and Universities

Alvesson, M., & Sandberg, J. (2011). Generating research questions through problematization. Academy of Management Review, 36(2), 247–271. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2009.0188
Bertram, V., Baier-Mosch, F., Dignath, C., & Kunter, M. (2023). Promoting pre- and in-service teachers’ digital competence by using reverse mentoring. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 51, 559–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42010-023-00183-0
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. Wiley.
Cain, L., Goldring, J., & Westall, A. (2024). Seeing behind the curtain: Reverse mentoring within the higher education landscape. Teaching in Higher Education, 29(5), 1267–1282. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2022.2129963
Chaudhuri, S., & Ghosh, R. (2012). Reverse mentoring: A social exchange tool for keeping the boomers engaged and millennials committed. Human Resource Development Review, 11(1), 55–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484311417562
Chaudhuri, S., Park, S., & Johnson, K. R. (2022). Engagement, inclusion, knowledge sharing, and talent development: Is reverse mentoring a panacea to all? Findings from literature review. European Journal of Training and Development, 46(5/6), 468–483. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-01-2021-0005
Chen, C. C., Chen, X.-P., & Huang, S. (2013). Chinese guanxi: An integrative review and new directions for future research. Management and Organization Review, 9(1), 167–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/more.12010
Chen, Y.-C. (2013). Effect of reverse mentoring on traditional mentoring functions. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 13(3), 199–208.
Chen, Y.-C. (2015). The introspection of traditional mentoring functions and modification of the corresponding scale. In Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Education Reform and Modern Management (pp. 76–79). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/ermm-15.2015.19
Clarke, A. J., Burgess, A., van Diggele, C., & Mellis, C. (2019). The role of reverse mentoring in medical education: Current insights. Advances in Medical Education and Practice, 10, 693–701. https://doi.org/10.2147/AMEP.S179303
Communist Party of China Central Committee & State Council. (2025). Jiaoyu qiangguo jianshe guihua gangyao (2024–2035 nian) [Outline of the plan for building China into a leading country in education (2024–2035)]. Xinhua News Agency.
Cornelissen, J. (2017). Editor’s comments: Developing propositions, a process model, or a typology? Addressing the challenges of writing theory without a boilerplate. Academy of Management Review, 42(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2016.0196
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), 874–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
Farh, J. L., & Cheng, B. S. (2000). A cultural analysis of paternalistic leadership in Chinese organizations. In J. T. Li, A. S. Tsui, & E. Weldon (Eds.), Management and organizations in the Chinese context (pp. 84–127). Macmillan.
Fei, X. (1992). From the soil: The foundations of Chinese society (G. G. Hamilton & W. Zheng, Trans.). University of California Press. (Original work published 1947)
Frey, B. S., & Jegen, R. (2001). Motivation crowding theory. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15(5), 589–611. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6419.00150
Gadomska-Lila, K. (2020). Effectiveness of reverse mentoring in creating intergenerational relationships. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 33(7), 1313–1328. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-10-2019-0326
Goffman, E. (1955). On face-work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. Psychiatry, 18(3), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1955.11023008
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092623
Guarino, C. M., & Borden, V. M. H. (2017). Faculty service loads and gender: Are women taking care of the academic family? Research in Higher Education, 58(6), 672–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9454-2
Higgins, M. C., & Kram, K. E. (2001). Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A developmental network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 264–288. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2001.4378023
Ho, D. Y.-F. (1976). On the concept of face. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4), 867–884. https://doi.org/10.1086/226145
Hu, H. C. (1944). The Chinese concepts of ‘face’. American Anthropologist, 46(1), 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1944.46.1.02a00040
Hwang, K.-K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4), 944–974. https://doi.org/10.1086/228588
Jaakkola, E. (2020). Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches. AMS Review, 10(1–2), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00161-0
Jiang, P., Zong, K., Zhao, C., & Long, L. (2025). Turning resistance into assistance: A research proposal on the effectiveness and mechanism of the reverse mentoring practice in the digital transformation context. Advances in Psychological Science, 33(7), 1120–1139. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.1120 [In Chinese]
Jiang, S. (2026, October 14). Dang nianqingren kaishi ‘shuzi fanbu’, laoshi gai jiao xie shenme? [When young people start ‘digital reverse feeding’, what should teachers teach?]. People’s Daily. Republished by Guangming Online. https://m.gmw.cn/2026-10/14/content_1304575343.htm
Jiang, Y. (2019, June 6). Xiashu gei ni dang daoshi, da qiye rezhong ‘nixiang daoshi zhi’ [Your subordinate as your mentor: Large companies embrace reverse mentoring]. Jiemian News. https://www.jiemian.com/article/3171500.html
Kaše, R., Saksida, T., & Miheli?, K. K. (2019). Skill development in reverse mentoring: Motivational processes of mentors and learners. Human Resource Management, 58(1), 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21932
Kirkman, B. L., Chen, G., Farh, J.-L., Chen, Z. X., & Lowe, K. B. (2009). Individual power distance orientation and follower reactions to transformational leaders: A cross-level, cross-cultural examination. Academy of Management Journal, 52(4), 744–764. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.43669971
Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Scott, Foresman.
Lee, F. (2002). The social costs of seeking help. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 38(1), 17–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886302381002
Levy, J. S. (2008). Case studies: Types, designs, and logics of inference. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 25(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388940701860318
Li, M., Guo, J., Zou, C., & Yin, J. (2025). The impact of reverse mentoring on employees’ innovative behavior: Evidence from Chinese technology enterprises. Sustainability, 17(1), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010006
Liu, M., & Yang, Y. (2025, June 6). Cong ‘chuandaozhe’ dao ‘yinluren’: AI gongju ruhe tuidong gaoxiao shisheng guanxi biange? [From ‘transmitter’ to ‘guide’: How are AI tools reshaping teacher–student relations in universities?]. Guangming Online. https://www.gmw.cn/xueshu/2025-06/06/content_38075034.htm
Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Social hierarchy: The self-reinforcing nature of power and status. Academy of Management Annals, 2(1), 351–398. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520802211628
Mead, M. (1970). Culture and commitment: A study of the generation gap. Natural History Press.
Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363. https://doi.org/10.1086/226550
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). Jiaoshi shuzi suyang [Digital literacy of teachers] (Standard No. JY/T 0646—2022).
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2026). 2025 nian quanguo jiaoyu shiye fazhan tongji gongbao [Statistical bulletin on national educational development in 2025].
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x
Molm, L. D., Collett, J. L., & Schaefer, D. R. (2007). Building solidarity through generalized exchange: A theory of reciprocity. American Journal of Sociology, 113(1), 205–242. https://doi.org/10.1086/517900
Morris, L. V. (2017). Reverse mentoring: Untapped resource in the academy? Innovative Higher Education, 42(4), 285–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-017-9405-z
Murphy, W. M. (2012). Reverse mentoring at work: Fostering cross-generational learning and developing millennial leaders. Human Resource Management, 51(4), 549–573. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21489
Paine, L. W., & Ma, L. (1993). Teachers working together: A dialogue on organizational and cultural perspectives of Chinese teachers. International Journal of Educational Research, 19(8), 675–697.
Peng, S., Zhang, J., Yin, K., & Bu, X. (2026). Reverse mentoring relationship: A structural theory and empirical examination in the context of Chinese organizations. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 58(9), 1900–1918. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1900 [In Chinese]
Qian, J., Han, Z., Wang, H., Li, X., & Wang, Q. (2014). Power distance and mentor–protégé relationship quality as moderators of the relationship between informal mentoring and burnout: Evidence from China. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 8, Article 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-8-51
Qiu, T., Du, J., & Lu, J. (2025). Not bowing down thine ear: Underestimating observers’ impression after seeking help from people with less competence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 55(9), 695–707. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.70007
Sar?o?lu, E. B., Özdemir, Ö., & Görgün, M. (2026). Reverse mentoring: Intergenerational communication and its perceived contributions to organizational life. Frontiers in Communication, 11, Article 1681796. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2026.1681796
Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 571–610. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1995.9508080331
Tsui, A. S. (2004). Contributing to global management knowledge: A case for high quality indigenous research. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(4), 491–513. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:APJM.0000048715.35108.a7
Wang, J., & Paine, L. W. (2001). Mentoring as assisted performance: A pair of Chinese teachers working together. The Elementary School Journal, 102(2), 157–181. https://doi.org/10.1086/499698
Whetten, D. A. (1989). What constitutes a theoretical contribution? Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 490–495. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4308371
Yang, L., Martínez-Abad, F., & García-Holgado, A. (2022). Exploring factors influencing pre-service and in-service teachers’ perception of digital competencies in the Chinese region of Anhui. Education and Information Technologies, 27(9), 12469–12494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11085-6
Zhou, X. (2022). Cultural reverse I: The past and present of intergenerational revolution. Routledge.
Zhu, Y., Jin, Y., & Si, W. (2026). Fostering intergenerational human capital development: A reverse mentoring perspective. Advances in Psychological Science, 34(12), 2152–2167. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.2152 [In Chinese]

Huo, H., Aziz, F., & Musa, S. N. S. (2026). Authorised Inversion: Reverse Mentoring for Teachers Digital Competence in Chinese Schools and Universities. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 16(11), 223–247.

Copyright: © 2026 The Author(s)
Published by HRMARS (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode