ISSN: 2226-6348
Open access
In the post-Cold War international system, state power capacities are determined not only by military and economic elements but also by cultural depth and identity-based ties. This research examines the determinacy of geocultural power in the international system through the case of Turkey using qualitative methodology. The central problematic concerns how Turkey's historical and cultural heritage transforms into foreign policy capacity and shapes its strategic position in the international system. Structured within the framework of social constructivism's concepts of identity, norms, and collective memory, the research employs document analysis and discourse analysis methods. Findings reveal that Turkey's geocultural power manifests in four fundamental dimensions: the six-century legacy of the Ottoman Empire creates historical ties across geography spanning from the Balkans to the Middle East, its position as a founding element of Islamic civilization establishes normative connections with two billion Muslims, thousand-year migration processes originating from Central Asia form ethnic and linguistic affinities with Turkic republics, and cultural diplomacy is systematically conducted through institutions such as Yunus Emre Institute. The original contribution of the research is the expansion of Turkey's geocultural depth to encompass historical connections extending to the American continent through the Bering Strait, the legacy of Western Huns in Europe, and Turkic-Muslim communities within the Russian Federation. The hypothesis is confirmed at approximately seventy-seven percent, demonstrating that geocultural power strengthens Turkey's regional role but is constrained by economic and structural conditions. The study proves that geocultural power operates through mechanisms of identity construction, norm diffusion, and collective memory production, offers theoretical contributions to international relations literature, and provides concrete recommendations to policymakers.
Acharya, A. (2014). The end of American world order. Polity.
Adida, C. L., Laitin, D. D., & Valfort, M.-A. (2016). Why Muslim integration fails in Christian-heritage societies. Harvard University Press.
Adoui, A. (2024). International higher education and the rise of soft power as cultural diplomacy: A comparative study of Morocco and South Korea. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44180-6
Agnew, J. (2003). Geopolitics: Re-visioning world politics (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Aktay, Y. (2014). The Turkish Diyanet's activity in the European public sphere: Perceptions and reactions. Insight Turkey, 16(1), 99-118.
Aktürk, ?. (2012). Regimes of ethnicity and nationhood in Germany, Russia, and Turkey. Cambridge University Press.
Allison, R. (2013). Russia, the West, and military intervention. Oxford University Press.
Altan-Olcay, Ö., & Balta, E. (2020). The American passport in Turkey: National citizenship in the age of transnationalism. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Altun???k, M. B. (2013). The inflexibility of Turkey's policy in Syria. IEMed Mediterranean Yearbook, 45-48.
Altun???k, M. B., & Martin, L. G. (2011). Making sense of Turkish foreign policy in the Middle East under AKP. Turkish Studies, 12(4), 569-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2011.622513
Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities (Rev. ed.). Verso.
Ang, I., Isar, Y. R., & Mar, P. (2015). Cultural diplomacy: Beyond the national interest? Berghahn.
Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization. University of Minnesota Press.
Ark?l?ç, A. (2022). Diaspora diplomacy: The politics of Turkish emigration to Europe. Manchester University Press.
Ark?l?ç, A., & ?enay, B. (Eds.). (2024). Routledge handbook of Turkey's diasporas. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003269021
Arquilla, J., & Ronfeldt, D. (Eds.). (2001). Networks and netwars. RAND.
Ayd?n, M. (2004). Turkish foreign policy: Framework and analysis. Centre for Strategic Research.
Ayd?n, M., & Aç?kme?e, S. A. (2013). Europeanization through improvisation: An analysis of the role of the EU in the transformation of Turkish foreign policy. Uluslararas? ?li?kiler, 10(39), 15-43.
Ayd?n, S., & Ereker, F. (2011). Cultural diplomacy in the Middle East: A case study of the Turkish Cultural Centers. Ortado?u Etütleri, 3(1), 47-74.
Ayd?n-Düzgit, S., & Kaliber, A. (Eds.). (2017). Is Turkey de-Europeanising? Encounters with Europe in a candidate country. Routledge.
Ayhan, B., Dölek, ?., & ?slamo?lu, G. (Eds.). (2019). Kamu diplomasisi [Public diplomacy]. Nobel Akademik Yay?nc?l?k.
Baba, G. (2024). Türkiye's transregionalism with South Asia: Geoculture-boosted multifaceted bilateralism. Oasis, (39), 169-187.
Bachmann, J., Ashagrie, B., Kuyumcuo?lu, O., & Schierenbeck, I. (2025). Geocultural power in the Red Sea Region. Foreign Policy Analysis, 21(2), orae039, 1-12.
Balc?, A. (2013). Turkey's relations with the Balkans and the Caucasus. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Balc?, A. (2017). Türkiye d?? politikas?: ?lkeler, aktörler ve uygulamalar [Turkish foreign policy: Principles, actors and practices] (Revised ed.). Alfa Yay?nlar?.
Baldersheim, H., & Keating, M. (Eds.). (2015). Small states in the modern world: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. Edward Elgar. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784711443
Balta, E. (Ed.). (2018). Turkey's state crisis and democratization. Bilgi University Press.
Barnett, M., & Finnemore, M. (2004). Rules for the world: International organizations in global politics. Cornell University Press.
Barry, C. M., & Kleinberg, K. B. (2015). Profiting from sanctions: Economic coercion and U.S. foreign direct investment in third-party states. International Organization, 69(4), 881-912. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081831500017X
Bass, G. J. (2008). Freedom's battle: The origins of humanitarian intervention. Knopf.
Bauböck, R., & Faist, T. (Eds.). (2010). Diaspora and transnationalism: Concepts, theories and methods. Amsterdam University Press.
Bell, D. A. (2015). The China model. Princeton University Press.
Benhabib, S. (2006). Another cosmopolitanism. Oxford University Press.
Berger, M. (2014). A brief history of Islam in Europe: Thirteen centuries of creed, conflict and coexistence. Amsterdam University Press.
Berg, M. (2023). Turkish drama serials: The importance and influence of a globally popular television phenomenon. University of Exeter Press.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Bilgin, P. (2008). Thinking past 'Western' IR? Third World Quarterly, 29(1), 5-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590701726392
Bowen, J. R. (2007). Why the French don't like headscarves. Princeton University Press.
Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. N. (2018). Computational propaganda. Oxford University Press.
Brady, A.-M. (2017). Magic weapons: China's political influence activities. Wilson Center Report.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-91. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE.
Browning, C. S. (2023). Nation branding and international politics. McGill-Queen's University Press.
Bull, H. (1977). The anarchical society. Columbia University Press.
Buzan, B., & Wæver, O. (2003). Regions and powers: The structure of international security. Cambridge University Press.
Byman, D., & Pollack, K. (2001). Let us now praise great men. International Security, 25(4), 107-146. https://doi.org/10.1162/016228801753191349
Cal??, ?. H. (2021). Türkiye-AB ili?kileri: Kimlik aray???, politik aktörler ve de?i?im [Turkey-EU relations: Identity search, political actors and change] (Expanded and updated 6th ed.). Nobel Akademik Yay?nc?l?k.
Castells, M. (2009). Communication power. Oxford University Press.
Castells, M. (2010). The power of identity (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Cesari, J. (2013). Why the West fears Islam. Palgrave Macmillan.
Cesari, J. (2021). We God's people. Cambridge University Press.
Cesari, J., Roy, O., & Maréchal, B. (Eds.). (2025). Handbook of political Islam in Europe. Oxford University Press.
Chaban, N., & Holland, M. (Eds.). (2008). The European Union and the world. Nomos.
Chayes, S. (2015). Thieves of state. W. W. Norton.
Chitty, N., Ji, L., & Rawnsley, G. D. (Eds.). (2025). The Routledge handbook of soft power (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). SAGE.
Cull, N. J. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past. USC Center on Public Diplomacy.
Da??, Z. (Ed.). (2006). AK Partili y?llar: Do?u'dan Bat?'ya d?? politika [AK Party years: Foreign policy from East to West]. Orion.
Davies, F. (2025). Muslims in the Russian army: Colonial accommodation and the limits of empire, 1874-1917. Routledge.
Davuto?lu, A. (2001). Stratejik derinlik: Türkiye'nin uluslararas? konumu [Strategic depth: Turkey's international position]. Küre Yay?nlar?.
Davuto?lu, A. (2014). Turkey's humanitarian diplomacy: Objectives, challenges and prospects. Nationalities Papers, 42(6), 865-870. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2014.953466
Diez, T., Agnantopoulos, A., & Kaliber, A. (2005). Turkey, Europeanization and civil society. South European Society and Politics, 10(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608740500037817
Dragneva, R., & Wolczuk, K. (2017). The Eurasian Economic Union: Deals, rules and the exercise of power. Chatham House Research Paper.
Dummer Scheel, S., Faucher, C., & Gatica Mizala, C. (Eds.). (2024). Soft power beyond the nation. Georgetown University Press.
Duran, B., & Y?lmaz, ?. (Eds.). (2011). Ortado?u'da dönü?üm ve Türkiye [Transformation in the Middle East and Turkey]. SETA.
Ehteshami, A., & Hinnebusch, R. A. (1997). Syria and Iran: Middle powers in a penetrated regional system. Routledge.
Ek?i, M. (2014). Kamu diplomasisi: Aktörler, araçlar, yöntemler [Public diplomacy: Actors, tools, methods]. Nobel Akademik Yay?nc?l?k.
Ek?i, M. (2016). Kamu diplomasisi ve AK Parti dönemi Türk d?? politikas? [Public diplomacy and Turkish foreign policy during the AK Party period]. Siyasal Kitabevi.
Ek?i, M., & Dinç, C. (2021). Turkish soft power in the Balkans: Cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy. Turkish Studies, 22(2), 275-295. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2020.1758446
Eralp, A., & Evin, A. (Eds.). (2010). Turkey and the EU: Processes of Europeanisation. METU Press.
Esen, B., & Gümü?çü, ?. (2016). Rising competitive authoritarianism in Turkey. Third World Quarterly, 37(9), 1581-1606. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1135732
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Polity Press.
Ferguson, N. (2018). The square and the tower. Penguin.
Fuller, G. E. (2008). The new Turkish republic. USIP Press.
Galeeva, D. (2024). Islam in Russia: Formations of tolerance. Routledge.
Galeotti, M. (2017). Hybrid war or gibridnaya voyna? NATO Defense College Research Paper.
Gause, F. G. (2014). The international relations of the Persian Gulf. Cambridge University Press.
Golden, P. B. (1992). An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples. Otto Harrassowitz.
Grousset, R. (1939). L'empire des steppes: Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan. Payot.
Grincheva, N. (2024). The past and future of cultural diplomacy. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 30(2), 172-191.
Gstöhl, S., & Lannon, E. (Eds.). (2014). The European neighbourhood policy in a comparative perspective. Routledge.
Güner, O. (Ed.). (2025). Türkiye's public diplomacy ecosystem: A reflection on evolving practices. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81916-2
Guzzini, S. (2013). Power, realism and constructivism. Routledge.
Hale, W. (2000). Turkish foreign policy, 1774-2000. Frank Cass.
Hale, W. (2013). Turkish foreign policy since 1774 (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Hall, S., & du Gay, P. (Eds.). (1996). Questions of cultural identity. Sage.
Hannerz, U. (1996). Transnational connections. Routledge.
Harl, K. W. (2023). Empires of the steppes: A history of the nomadic tribes who shaped civilization. Bloomsbury.
Hayden, C. (2012). The rhetoric of soft power: Public diplomacy in global contexts. Lexington Books.
Heibach, J., & Ta?, H. (2024). Beyond the soft-hard power binary: Resource control in Turkey's foreign policy towards Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 26(3), 311-326.
Helmus, T. C., Paul, C., & Glenn, R. W. (2018). Russian social media influence: Understanding Russian propaganda in Eastern Europe. RAND Corporation.
Hoffman, F. (2007). Conflict in the 21st century: The rise of hybrid wars. Potomac Institute for Policy Studies.
Hopf, T. (1998). The promise of constructivism in international relations theory. International Security, 23(1), 171-200. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.23.1.171
Huntington, S. P. (1993). The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22-49. https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621
Huntington, S. P. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. Simon & Schuster.
Ikenberry, G. J. (2011). Liberal Leviathan: The origins, crisis, and transformation of the American world order. Princeton University Press.
Imber, C. (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The structure of power. Palgrave Macmillan.
?nalc?k, H. (1973). The Ottoman Empire: The classical age, 1300-1600. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
?nalc?k, H. (2011). Osmanl? ?mparatorlu?u ve dünya ekonomisi [The Ottoman Empire and world economy]. Tima?.
Ivkovska, M., Tasheva, E., & Derviševi?, A. (Eds.). (2025). Architectural heritage of the Ottoman Balkans: Conservation and tourism practices. Routledge.
Ivkovska, V., Tasheva, S., & Derviševi?, H. (Eds.). (2025). Architectural heritage of the Ottoman Balkans: Public buildings and urban spaces. Routledge.
Jelavich, B. (1983). History of the Balkans (Vol. 1-2). Cambridge University Press.
Kaldor, M. (2012). New and old wars: Organized violence in a global era (3rd ed.). Stanford University Press.
Kal?n, ?. (2011). Soft power and public diplomacy in Turkey. Perceptions, 16(3), 5-23.
Kal?n, ?. (2015). Ben, öteki ve ötesi: ?slam-Bat? ili?kileri tarihine giri? [Self, other and beyond: Introduction to the history of Islam-West relations]. ?nsan Yay?nlar?.
Kaptan, Y., & Algan, E. (Eds.). (2020). Television in Turkey: Local production, transnational expansion and political aspirations. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46051-8
Karpat, K. H. (2002). Osmanl? modernle?mesi: Toplum, kurumsal de?i?im ve nüfus [Ottoman modernization: Society, institutional change and population]. ?mge Kitabevi.
Karpat, K. H. (2004). Studies on Ottoman social and political history: Selected articles and essays. Brill.
Katzenstein, P. J. (Ed.). (1996). The culture of national security: Norms and identity in world politics. Columbia University Press.
Kaya, A. (2012). Europeanization and tolerance in Turkey: The myth of toleration. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kaya, A. (2019). Populism and heritage in Europe: Lost in diversity and unity. Routledge.
Kello, L. (2017). The virtual weapon and international order. Yale University Press.
Keohane, R. O. (1984). After hegemony: Cooperation and discord in the world political economy. Princeton University Press.
Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (2012). Power and interdependence (4th ed.). Pearson.
Keyman, E. F., & Gümü?çü, ?. (2014). Democracy, identity and foreign policy in Turkey: Hegemony through transformation. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kiri?ci, K. (2009). The transformation of Turkish foreign policy: The rise of the trading state. New Perspectives on Turkey, 40, 29-57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0896634600005264
Konrad, V., & Amilhat Szary, A.-L. (2022). Border culture: Theory, imagination, geopolitics. Routledge.
Koopmans, R. (2015). Religious fundamentalism and hostility against out-groups: A comparison of Muslims and Christians in Western Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(1), 33-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2014.935307
Krasner, S. D. (1999). Sovereignty: Organized hypocrisy. Princeton University Press.
Kuru, A. T. (2009). Secularism and state policies toward religion: The United States, France, and Turkey. Cambridge University Press.
Lähdesmäki, T., & ?eginskas, V. L. A. (Eds.). (2024). Heritage diplomacy: Discourses, imaginaries and practices of heritage and power. Routledge.
Lewis, B. (2002). What went wrong? The clash between Islam and modernity in the Middle East. Oxford University Press.
Mackinder, H. J. (1904). The geographical pivot of history. The Geographical Journal, 23(4), 421-437. https://doi.org/10.2307/1775498
Maenchen-Helfen, O. J. (1973). The world of the Huns: Studies in their history and culture. University of California Press.
Mandaville, P. (2007). Global political Islam. Routledge.
Mandaville, P. (2020). Islam and politics (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Mandaville, P. (Ed.). (2023). The geopolitics of religious soft power: How states use religion in foreign policy. Oxford University Press.
Manners, I. (2002). Normative power Europe: A contradiction in terms? Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(2), 235-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5965.00353
Mattern, J. B. (2005). Why 'soft power' isn't so soft: Representational force and the sociolinguistic construction of attraction in world politics. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 33(3), 583-612. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298050330031601
Mearsheimer, J. J. (2001). The tragedy of great power politics. W. W. Norton.
Melissen, J. (Ed.). (2005). The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Meltzer, D. J. (2021). First peoples in a new world: Populating Ice Age America (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Morgenthau, H. J. (1948). Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace. Alfred A. Knopf.
Morozov, E. (2011). The net delusion: The dark side of Internet freedom. PublicAffairs.
Morozov, V., & Rumelili, B. (2012). The external constitution of European identity: Russia and Turkey as Europe-makers. Cooperation and Conflict, 47(1), 28-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836711430518
Müftüler-Baç, M. (2008). Turkey's political reforms and the impact of the European Union. South European Society and Politics, 10(1), 17-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608740500037809
Nielsen, J. (2013). Muslims in Western Europe (4th ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. PublicAffairs.
Nye, J. S. (2008). Public diplomacy and soft power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 94-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207311699
Nye, J. S. (2011). The future of power. PublicAffairs.
Ó Tuathail, G. (1996). Critical geopolitics: The politics of writing global space. University of Minnesota Press.
O?uzlu, T. (2007). Soft power in Turkish foreign policy. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 61(1), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357710601142518
O?uzlu, T. (2011). Turkey's eroding commitment to NATO: From Cold War to globalization. Global Governance, 17(4), 459-476. https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-01704003
O?uzlu, T. (2014). Turkey and the EU: Europeanization without membership. Turkish Policy Quarterly, 13(4), 15-22.
Öni?, Z. (2011). Multiple faces of the "new" Turkish foreign policy: Underlying dynamics and a critique. Insight Turkey, 13(1), 47-65.
Oran, B. (2001). Türk d?? politikas?: Kurtulu? Sava??ndan bugüne olgular, belgeler, yorumlar [Turkish foreign policy: Facts, documents, interpretations from the War of Independence to today] (Vol. 1-2). ?leti?im Yay?nlar?.
Oran, B. (2013). The minority concept and rights in Turkey: The Lausanne Peace Treaty and current issues. In Z. F. Kabasakal Arat (Ed.), Human rights in Turkey (pp. 35-56). University of Pennsylvania Press.
Özkan, M. (2010). Turkey's rising role in Africa. Turkish Policy Quarterly, 9(4), 93-105.
Poell, T., Nieborg, D. B., & Duffy, B. E. (2021). Platforms and cultural production. Polity.
Raff, J. (2022). Origin: A genetic history of the Americas. Twelve / Hachette.
Rentzsch, J., & Y?ld?z, H. (2020). The Uybat inscriptions: A group of Old Turkic runic texts from the Yenisei area. De Gruyter.
Robins, P. (2003). Suits and uniforms: Turkish foreign policy since the Cold War. Hurst & Company.
Roy, O. (2004). Globalized Islam: The search for a new ummah. Columbia University Press.
Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.
Sedighi, A. (Ed.). (2023). Iranian and minority languages at home and in diaspora. De Gruyter Mouton.
Snow, N., & Cull, N. J. (Eds.). (2020). Routledge handbook of public diplomacy (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Spykman, N. J. (1944). The geography of the peace. Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Strange, S. (1988). States and markets. Pinter Publishers.
?ahin, E. (2018). Turkish TV series and soft power: A case study of Middle East audiences. International Journal of Communication, 12, 3859-3878.
Talbot, V. (Ed.). (2016). Turkey: Towards a Eurasian shift? ISPI.
Tardy, T. (2015). CSDP: Getting third states on board. EUISS Brief, (6). European Union Institute for Security Studies.
Tasp?nar, Ö. (2012). Turkey's Middle East policies: Between neo-Ottomanism and Kemalism. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Telhami, S., & Barnett, M. (Eds.). (2002). Identity and foreign policy in the Middle East. Cornell University Press.
Tepeciklio?lu, E. E., & Tepeciklio?lu, A. O. (Eds.). (2021). Turkey in Africa: A new emerging power? Routledge.
Tezcür, G. M. (Ed.). (2022). The Oxford handbook of Turkish politics. Oxford University Press.
Thompson, E. A. (1996). The Huns (Rev. ed.). Blackwell.
Tocci, N. (2011). Turkey's European future: Behind the scenes of America's influence on EU-Turkey relations. NYU Press.
Todorova, M. (1997). Imagining the Balkans. Oxford University Press.
Tokdo?an, N. (Ed.). (2021). Türkiye'de medya ve siyaset [Media and politics in Turkey]. ?leti?im Yay?nlar?.
Toktam??, K., & Keyman, E. F. (Eds.). (2019). Global Turkey in Europe: Political, economic, and foreign policy dimensions of Turkey's evolving relationship with the EU. IAI-EDAM.
Tottoli, R. (Ed.). (2022). Routledge handbook of Islam in the West (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Tsygankov, A. P. (2023). The "Russian idea" in international relations: Civilization and national distinctiveness. Routledge.
Tufekci, Z. (2017). Twitter and tear gas: The power and fragility of networked protest. Yale University Press.
Turan, O. (1969). Selçuklular tarihi ve Türk-?slam medeniyeti [History of the Seljuks and Turkish-Islamic civilization]. Turan Ne?riyat Yurdu.
Van Oudenaren, J. (2024). The geopolitics of culture: James Billington, the Library of Congress, and the failed quest for a new Russia. Cornell University Press.
Walker, C., & Ludwig, J. (2017). The meaning of sharp power: How authoritarian states project influence. Foreign Affairs, 96(6), 16-24.
Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of international politics. Addison-Wesley.
Wedeen, L. (2008). Peripheral visions: Publics, power, and performance in Yemen. University of Chicago Press.
Wendt, A. (1992). Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics. International Organization, 46(2), 391-425. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300027764
Wendt, A. (1994). Collective identity formation and the international state. American Political Science Review, 88(2), 384-396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2944711
Wendt, A. (1999). Social theory of international politics. Cambridge University Press.
Wheeler, N. J. (2000). Saving strangers: Humanitarian intervention in international society. Oxford University Press.
Williams, M. C. (2005). The realist tradition and the limits of international relations. Cambridge University Press.
Wu, I. S. (2024). Measuring soft power in international relations. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Yalvaç, F. (2012). Strategic depth or hegemonic depth? A critical realist analysis of Turkey's position in the world system. International Relations, 26(2), 165-180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117812438451
Yan?k, L. K. (2011). Constructing Turkish "exceptionalism": Discourses of liminality and hybridity in post-Cold War Turkish foreign policy. Political Geography, 30(2), 80-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2011.01.003
Yan?k, L. K. (2012). The metamorphosis of metaphors of vision: "Bridging" Turkey's location, role and identity after the end of the Cold War. Geopolitics, 17(1), 98-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2011.523797
Yavuz, M. H. (2009). Secularism and Muslim democracy in Turkey. Cambridge University Press.
Yemelianova, G. M. (2025). Turkism in Eurasia: Identity, ideology and politics. I.B. Tauris (Bloomsbury).
Yemelianova, G. M., & Ra?ius, E. (Eds.). (2023). Muslims of post-Communist Eurasia. Routledge.
Y?lmaz, A. N., & K?l?ço?lu, G. (Eds.). (2018). Yumu?ak güç ve kamu diplomasisi üzerine akademik analizler: Türkiye ve dünyadan örnekler [Academic analyses on soft power and public diplomacy: Examples from Turkey and the world]. Nobel Akademik Yay?nc?l?k.
Yurdusev, N. (1997). Avrupa'da Osmanl? alg?s? ve modernle?me [Ottoman perception in Europe and modernization]. Vadi Yay?nlar?.
Zarakol, A. (2011). After defeat: How the East learned to live with the West. Cambridge University Press.
Zarakol, A. (2022). Before the West: The rise and fall of Eastern world orders. Cambridge University Press.
Zengin, E., & Karda?, T. (Eds.). (2020). Uluslararas? ili?kilerde yeni tart??malar: Hibrit sava?, siber güvenlik, dezenformasyon [New debates in international relations: Hybrid war, cybersecurity, disinformation]. Nobel Akademik Yay?nc?l?k.
Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. PublicAffairs.
Zürcher, E. J. (2004). Turkey: A modern history (Updated ed.). I.B. Tauris.
Arslan, S. (2025). The Role of Geocultural Power in the Post-Cold War International System: A Qualitative Analysis on Turkey. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 14(4), 2036–2063.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by HRMARS (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode